# LaTeX2e unofficial reference manual (October 2015)

## Short Table of Contents

- 1 About this document
- 2 Overview of LaTeX
- 3 Document classes
- 4 Fonts
- 5 Layout
- 6 Sectioning
- 7 Cross references
- 8 Environments
- 9 Line breaking
- 10 Page breaking
- 11 Footnotes
- 12 Definitions
- 13 Counters
- 14 Lengths
- 15 Making paragraphs
- 16 Math formulas
- 17 Modes
- 18 Page styles
- 19 Spaces
- 20 Boxes
- 21 Special insertions
- 22 Splitting the input
- 23 Front/back matter
- 24 Letters
- 25 Terminal input/output
- 26 Command line
- Appendix A Document templates
- Concept Index
- Command Index

## Table of Contents

- 1 About this document
- 2 Overview of LaTeX
  - 2.1 Starting and ending
  - 2.2 Output files
  - 2.3 TeX engines
  - 2.4 LaTeX command syntax
- 3 Document classes
  - 3.1 Document class options
- 4 Fonts
  - 4.1 Font styles
  - 4.2 Font sizes
  - 4.3 Low-level font commands
- 5 Layout
  - 5.1 `\onecolumn`
  - 5.2 `\twocolumn`
  - 5.3 `\flushbottom`
  - 5.4 `\raggedbottom`
  - 5.5 Page layout parameters
  - 5.6 Floats
- 6 Sectioning
- 7 Cross references
  - 7.1 `\label`
  - 7.2 `\pageref{key}`
  - 7.3 `\ref{key}`
- 8 Environments
  - 8.1 `abstract`
  - 8.2 `array`
  - 8.3 `center`
    - 8.3.1 `\centering`
  - 8.4 `description`
  - 8.5 `displaymath`
  - 8.6 `document`
  - 8.7 `enumerate`
  - 8.8 `eqnarray`
  - 8.9 `equation`
  - 8.10 `figure`
  - 8.11 `filecontents`: Write an external file
  - 8.12 `flushleft`
    - 8.12.1 `\raggedright`
  - 8.13 `flushright`
    - 8.13.1 `\raggedleft`
  - 8.14 `itemize`
  - 8.15 `letter` environment: writing letters
  - 8.16 `list`
  - 8.17 `math`
  - 8.18 `minipage`
  - 8.19 `picture`
    - 8.19.1 `\circle`
    - 8.19.2 `\makebox`
    - 8.19.3 `\framebox`
    - 8.19.4 `\dashbox`
    - 8.19.5 `\frame`
    - 8.19.6 `\line`
    - 8.19.7 `\linethickness`
    - 8.19.8 `\thicklines`
    - 8.19.9 `\thinlines`
    - 8.19.10 `\multiput`
    - 8.19.11 `\oval`
    - 8.19.12 `\put`
    - 8.19.13 `\shortstack`
    - 8.19.14 `\vector`
  - 8.20 `quotation` and `quote`
  - 8.21 `tabbing`
  - 8.22 `table`
  - 8.23 `tabular`
    - 8.23.1 `\multicolumn`
    - 8.23.2 `\vline`
    - 8.23.3 `\cline`
    - 8.23.4 `\hline`
  - 8.24 `thebibliography`
    - 8.24.1 `\bibitem`
    - 8.24.2 `\cite`
    - 8.24.3 `\nocite`
    - 8.24.4 Using BibTeX
  - 8.25 `theorem`
  - 8.26 `titlepage`
  - 8.27 `verbatim`
    - 8.27.1 `\verb`
  - 8.28 `verse`
- 9 Line breaking
  - 9.1 `\\`
  - 9.2 `\obeycr` & `\restorecr`
  - 9.3 `\newline`
  - 9.4 `\-` (discretionary hyphen)
  - 9.5 `\fussy`
  - 9.6 `\sloppy`
  - 9.7 `\hyphenation`
  - 9.8 `\linebreak` & `\nolinebreak`
- 10 Page breaking
  - 10.1 `\cleardoublepage`
  - 10.2 `\clearpage`
  - 10.3 `\newpage`
  - 10.4 `\enlargethispage`
  - 10.5 `\pagebreak` & `\nopagebreak`
- 11 Footnotes
  - 11.1 `\footnote`
  - 11.2 `\footnotemark`
  - 11.3 `\footnotetext`
  - 11.4 Footnotes in a table
  - 11.5 Footnotes in section headings
  - 11.6 Footnotes of footnotes
  - 11.7 Multiple references to footnotes
  - 11.8 Footnote parameters
- 12 Definitions
  - 12.1 `\newcommand` & `\renewcommand`
  - 12.2 `\providecommand`
  - 12.3 `\newcounter`: Allocating a counter
  - 12.4 `\newlength`: Allocating a length
  - 12.5 `\newsavebox`: Allocating a box
  - 12.6 `\newenvironment` & `\renewenvironment`
  - 12.7 `\newtheorem`
  - 12.8 `\newfont`: Define a new font (obsolete)
  - 12.9 `\protect`
- 13 Counters
  - 13.1 `\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol`: Printing counters
  - 13.2 `\usecounter{counter}`
  - 13.3 `\value{counter}`
  - 13.4 `\setcounter{counter}{value}`
  - 13.5 `\addtocounter{counter}{value}`
  - 13.6 `\refstepcounter{counter}`
  - 13.7 `\stepcounter{counter}`
  - 13.8 `\day \month \year`: Predefined counters
- 14 Lengths
  - 14.1 Units of length
  - 14.2 `\setlength{\len}{value}`
  - 14.3 `\addtolength{\len}{amount}`
  - 14.4 `\settodepth`
  - 14.5 `\settoheight`
  - 14.6 `\settowidth{\len}{text}`
  - 14.7 Predefined lengths
- 15 Making paragraphs
  - 15.1 `\indent`
  - 15.2 `\noindent`
  - 15.3 `\parskip`
  - 15.4 Marginal notes
- 16 Math formulas
  - 16.1 Subscripts & superscripts
  - 16.2 Math symbols
  - 16.3 Math functions
  - 16.4 Math accents
  - 16.5 Spacing in math mode
  - 16.6 Math miscellany
- 17 Modes
- 18 Page styles
  - 18.1 `\maketitle`
  - 18.2 `\pagenumbering`
  - 18.3 `\pagestyle`
  - 18.4 `\thispagestyle{style}`
- 19 Spaces
  - 19.1 `\hspace`
  - 19.2 `\hfill`
  - 19.3 `\(SPACE)` and \@
  - 19.4 `\` after a control sequence
  - 19.5 `\frenchspacing`
  - 19.6 `\thinspace`: Insert 1/6em
  - 19.7 `\/`: Insert italic correction
  - 19.8 `\hrulefill \dotfill`
  - 19.9 `\addvspace`
  - 19.10 `\bigskip \medskip \smallskip`
  - 19.11 `\vfill`
  - 19.12 `\vspace{length}`
- 20 Boxes
  - 20.1 `\mbox{text}`
  - 20.2 `\fbox` and `\framebox`
  - 20.3 `lrbox`
  - 20.4 `\makebox`
  - 20.5 `\parbox`
  - 20.6 `\raisebox`
  - 20.7 `\savebox`
  - 20.8 `\sbox{\boxcmd}{text}`
  - 20.9 `\usebox{\boxcmd}`
- 21 Special insertions
  - 21.1 Reserved characters
  - 21.2 Text symbols
  - 21.3 Accents
  - 21.4 Non-English characters
  - 21.5 `\rule`
  - 21.6 `\today`
- 22 Splitting the input
  - 22.1 `\include`
  - 22.2 \`includeonly`
  - 22.3 `\input`
- 23 Front/back matter
  - 23.1 Tables of contents
    - 23.1.1 `\addcontentsline`
    - 23.1.2 `\addtocontents`
  - 23.2 Glossaries
  - 23.3 Indexes
- 24 Letters
  - 24.1 `\address`
  - 24.2 `\cc`
  - 24.3 `\closing`
  - 24.4 `\encl`
  - 24.5 `\location`
  - 24.6 `\makelabels`
  - 24.7 `\name`
  - 24.8 `\opening`
  - 24.9 `\ps`
  - 24.10 `\signature`
  - 24.11 `\telephone`
- 25 Terminal input/output
  - 25.1 `\typein[cmd]{msg}`
  - 25.2 `\typeout{msg}`
- 26 Command line
- Appendix A Document templates
  - A.1 `beamer` template
  - A.2 `book` template
  - A.3 `tugboat` template
- Concept Index
- Command Index

# LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual

This document is an unofficial reference manual (version of October 2015) for LaTeX2e, a document preparation system.

## 1 About this document

This is an unofficial reference manual for the LaTeX2e document preparation system, which is a macro package for the TeX typesetting program (see Overview). This document’s home page is http://home.gna.org/latexrefman. That page has links to the current output in various formats, sources, mailing list archives and subscriptions, and other infrastructure.

In this document, we will mostly just use ‘LaTeX’ rather than ‘LaTeX2e’, since the previous version of LaTeX (2.09) was retired many years ago.

LaTeX is currently maintained by a group of volunteers (http://latex-project.org). The official documentation written by the LaTeX project is available from their web site. This document is completely unofficial and has not been reviewed by the LaTeX maintainers. Do not send bug reports or anything else about this document to them. Instead, please send all comments to latexrefman-discuss@gna.org.

This document is a reference. There is a vast array of other sources of information about LaTeX, at all levels. Here are a few introductions.

http://ctan.org/pkg/latex-doc-ptr

  Two pages of recommended references to LaTeX documentation.

http://ctan.org/pkg/first-latex-doc

  Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math.

http://ctan.org/pkg/usrguide

  The guide for document authors that is maintained as part of LaTeX; there are plenty of others available elsewhere.

http://ctan.org/pkg/lshort

  A short introduction to LaTeX, translated to many languages.

http://tug.org/begin.html

  Introduction to the TeX system, including LaTeX, with further references.

## 2 Overview of LaTeX

LaTeX is a system for typesetting documents. It was originally created by Leslie Lamport and is now maintained by a group of volunteers (http://latex-project.org). It is widely used, particularly for complex and technical documents, such as those involving mathematics.

A LaTeX user writes an input file containing text along with interspersed commands, for instance commands describing how the text should be formatted. It is implemented as a set of related commands that interface with Donald E. Knuth’s TeX typesetting program (the technical term is that LaTeX is a macro package for the TeX engine). The user produces the output document by giving that input file to the TeX engine.

The term LaTeX is also sometimes used to mean the language in which the document is marked up, that is, to mean the set of commands available to a LaTeX user.

The name LaTeX is short for “Lamport TeX”. It is pronounced LAH-teck or LAY-teck, or sometimes LAY-tecks. Inside a document, produce the logo with `\LaTeX`. Where use of the logo is not sensible, such as in plain text, write it as ‘`LaTeX`’.

### 2.1 Starting and ending

LaTeX files have a simple global structure, with a standard beginning and ending. Here is a “hello, world” example:

    \documentclass{article}
    \begin{document}
    Hello, \LaTeX\ world.
    \end{document}

Here, the ‘`article`’ is the so-called document class, implemented in a file `article.cls`. Any document class can be used. A few document classes are defined by LaTeX itself, and vast array of others are widely available. See Document classes.

You can include other LaTeX commands between the `\documentclass` and the `\begin{document}` commands. This area is called the preamble.

The `\begin{document} ... \end{document}` is a so-called environment; the ‘`document`’ environment (and no others) is required in all LaTeX documents (see document). LaTeX provides many environments itself, and many more are defined separately. See Environments.

The following sections discuss how to produce PDF or other output from a LaTeX input file.

### 2.2 Output files

LaTeX produces a main output file and at least two accessory files. The main output file’s name ends in either `.dvi` or `.pdf`.

`.dvi`

  If LaTeX is invoked with the system command `latex` then it produces a DeVice Independent file, with extension `.dvi`. You can view this file with a command such as `xdvi`, or convert it to a PostScript `.ps` file with `dvips` or to a Portable Document Format `.pdf` file with `dvipdfmx`. The contents of the file can be dumped in human-readable form with `dvitype`. A vast array of other DVI utility programs are available (http://mirror.ctan.org/tex-archive/dviware).

`.pdf`

  If LaTeX is invoked via the system command `pdflatex`, among other commands (see TeX engines), then the main output is a Portable Document Format (PDF) file. Typically this is a self-contained file, with all fonts and images included.

LaTeX also produces at least two additional files.

`.log`

  This transcript file contains summary information such as a list of loaded packages. It also includes diagnostic messages and perhaps additional information for any errors.

`.aux`

  Auxiliary information is used by LaTeX for things such as cross references. For example, the first time that LaTeX finds a forward reference—a cross reference to something that has not yet appeared in the source—it will appear in the output as a doubled question mark `??`. When the referred-to spot does eventually appear in the source then LaTeX writes its location information to this `.aux` file. On the next invocation, LaTeX reads the location information from this file and uses it to resolve the reference, replacing the double question mark with the remembered location.

LaTeX may produce yet more files, characterized by the filename ending. These include a `.lof` file that is used to make a list of figures, a `.lot` file used to make a list of tables, and a `.toc` file used to make a table of contents. A particular class may create others; the list is open-ended.

### 2.3 TeX engines

LaTeX is defined to be a set of commands that are run by a TeX implementation (see Overview). This section gives a terse overview of the main programs.

`latex`
`pdflatex`

  In TeX Live (http://tug.org/texlive), if LaTeX is invoked via either the system command `latex` or `pdflatex`, then the pdfTeX engine is run (http://ctan.org/pkg/pdftex). When invoked as `latex`, the main output is a `.dvi` file; as `pdflatex`, the main output is a `.pdf` file.

  pdfTeX incorporates the e-TeX extensions to Knuth’s original program (http://ctan.org/pkg/etex), including additional programming features and bi-directional typesetting, and has plenty of extensions of its own. e-TeX is available on its own as the system command `etex`, but this is plain TeX (and produces `.dvi`).

  In other TeX distributions, `latex` may invoke e-TeX rather than pdfTeX. In any case, the e-TeX extensions can be assumed to be available in LaTeX.

`lualatex`

  If LaTeX is invoked via the system command `lualatex`, the LuaTeX engine is run (http://ctan.org/pkg/luatex). This program allows code written in the scripting language Lua (http://luatex.org) to interact with TeX’s typesetting. LuaTeX handles UTF-8 Unicode input natively, can handle OpenType and TrueType fonts, and produces a `.pdf` file by default. There is also `dvilualatex` to produce a `.dvi` file, but this is rarely used.

`xelatex`

  If LaTeX is invoked with the system command `xelatex`, the XeTeX engine is run (http://tug.org/xetex). Like LuaTeX, XeTeX natively supports UTF-8 Unicode and TrueType and OpenType fonts, though the implementation is completely different, mainly using external libraries instead of internal code. XeTeX produces a `.pdf` file as output; it does not support DVI output.

  Internally, XeTeX creates an `.xdv` file, a variant of DVI, and translates that to PDF using the (`x`)`dvipdfmx` program, but this process is automatic. The `.xdv` file is only useful for debugging.

Other variants of LaTeX and TeX exist, e.g., to provide additional support for Japanese and other languages ([u]pTeX, http://ctan.org/pkg/ptex, http://ctan.org/pkg/uptex).

### 2.4 LaTeX command syntax

In the LaTeX input file, a command name starts with a backslash character, `\`. The name itself then consists of either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter.

LaTeX commands names are case sensitive so that `\pagebreak` differs from `\Pagebreak` (the latter is not a standard command). Most commands are lowercase, but in any event you must enter all commands in the same case as they are defined.

A command may be followed by zero, one, or more arguments. These arguments may be either required or optional. Required arguments are contained in curly braces, `{...}`. Optional arguments are contained in square brackets, `[...]`. Generally, but not universally, if the command accepts an optional argument, it comes first, before any required arguments.

Inside of an optional argument, to use the character close square bracket (`]`) hide it inside curly braces, as in `\item[closing bracket {]}]`. Similarly, if an optional argument comes last, with no required argument after it, then to make the first character of the following text be an open square bracket, hide it inside curly braces.

LaTeX has the convention that some commands have a `*` form that is related to the form without a `*`, such as `\chapter` and `\chapter*`. The exact difference in behavior varies from command to command.

This manual describes all accepted options and `*`-forms for the commands it covers (barring unintentional omissions, a.k.a. bugs).

#### Environment

Synopsis:

    \begin{environment name}
      ..
    \end{environment name}

An area of LaTeX source, inside of which there is a distinct behavior. For instance, for poetry in LaTeX put the lines between `\begin{verse}` and `\end{verse}`.

    \begin{verse}
        There once was a man from Nantucket \\
         ..
    \end{verse}

The environment name at the beginning must exactly match that at the end. This includes the case where environment name ends in a star (`*`); both the `\begin` and `\end` texts must include the star.

Environments may have arguments, including optional arguments. This example produces a table. The first argument is optional (and causes the table to be aligned on its top row) while the second argument is required (it specifies the formatting of columns).

    \begin{tabular}[t]{r|l}
      .. rows of table ..
    \end{tabular}

#### Declaration

A command that changes the value, or changes the meaning, of some other command or parameter. For instance, the `\mainmatter` command changes the setting of page numbers from roman numerals to arabic.

## 3 Document classes

The document’s overall class is defined with this command, which is normally the first command in a LaTeX source file.

    \documentclass[options]{class}

The following document class names are built into LaTeX. (Many other document classes are available as separate packages; see Overview.)

`article`

  For a journal article, a presentation, and miscellaneous general use.

`book`

  Full-length books, including chapters and possibly including front matter, such as a preface, and back matter, such as an appendix (see Front/back matter).

`letter`

  Mail, optionally including mailing labels (see Letters).

`report`

  For documents of length between an `article` and a `book`, such as technical reports or theses, which may contain several chapters.

`slides`

  For slide presentations—rarely used today. In its place the `beamer` package is perhaps the most prevalent (see beamer template).

Standard options are described in the next section.

### 3.1 Document class options

You can specify so-called global options or class options to the `\documentclass` command by enclosing them in square brackets. To specify more than one option, separate them with a comma, as in:

    \documentclass[option1,option2,...]{class}

Here is the list of the standard class options.

All of the standard classes except `slides` accept the following options for selecting the typeface size (default is `10pt`):

    10pt  11pt  12pt

All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (these show height by width):

`a4paper`

  210 by 297 mm (about 8.25 by 11.75 inches)

`b5paper`

  176 by 250 mm (about 7 by 9.875 inches)

`executivepaper`

  7.25 by 10.5 inches

`legalpaper`

  8.5 by 14 inches

`letterpaper`

  8.5 by 11 inches (the default)

When using one of the engines pdfLaTeX, LuaLaTeX, or XeLaTeX (see TeX engines), options other than `letterpaper` set the print area but you must also set the physical paper size. One way to do that is to put `\pdfpagewidth=\paperwidth` and `\pdfpageheight=\paperheight` in your document’s preamble. The `geometry` package provides flexible ways of setting the print area and physical page size.

Miscellaneous other options:

`draft`
`final`

  Mark (`draft`) or do not mark (`final`) overfull boxes with a black box in the margin; default is `final`.

`fleqn`

  Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered.

`landscape`

  Selects landscape format; default is portrait.

`leqno`

  Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side.

`openbib`

  Use “open” bibliography format.

`titlepage`
`notitlepage`

  Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on the class.

The following options are not available with the `slides` class.

`onecolumn`
`twocolumn`

  Typeset in one or two columns; default is `onecolumn`.

`oneside`
`twoside`

  Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is `oneside`, except that in the `book` class the default is `twoside`.

  For one-sided printing, the text is centered on the page. For two-sided printing, the `\evensidemargin` (`\oddsidemargin`) parameter determines the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the page and the text’s left margin, with `\oddsidemargin` being 40% of the difference between `\paperwidth` and `\textwidth`, and `\evensidemargin` is the remainder.

`openright`
`openany`

  Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default is `openright` for `book`, and `openany` for `report`.

The `slides` class offers the option `clock` for printing the time at the bottom of each note.

Additional packages are loaded like this:

    \usepackage[options]{pkg}

To specify more than one package, you can separate them with a comma, as in `\usepackage{pkg1,pkg2,...}`, or use multiple `\usepackage` commands.

Any options given in the `\documentclass` command that are unknown by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with `\usepackage`.

## 4 Fonts

Two important aspects of selecting a font are specifying a size and a style. The LaTeX commands for doing this are described here.

### 4.1 Font styles

The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX.

This first group of commands is typically used with an argument, as in `\textit{text}`. In the table below, the corresponding command in parenthesis is the “declaration form”, which takes no arguments, as in `{\itshape text}`. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group.

These commands, in both the argument form and the declaration form, are cumulative; e.g., you can say either `\sffamily\bfseries` or `\bfseries\sffamily` to get bold sans serif.

You can alternatively use an environment form of the declarations; for instance, `\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}`.

These font-switching commands automatically insert italic corrections if needed. (See \/, for the details of italic corrections.) Specifically, they insert the italic correction unless the following character is in the list `\nocorrlist`, which by default consists of a period and a comma. To suppress the automatic insertion of italic correction, use `\nocorr` at the start or end of the command argument, such as `\textit{\nocorr text}` or `\textsc{text \nocorr}`.

`\textrm (\rmfamily)`

  Roman.

`\textit (\itshape)`

  Italics.

`\textmd (\mdseries)`

  Medium weight (default).

`\textbf (\bfseries)`

  Boldface.

`\textup (\upshape)`

  Upright (default).

`\textsl (\slshape)`

  Slanted.

`\textsf (\sffamily)`

  Sans serif.

`\textsc (\scshape)`

  Small caps.

`\texttt (\ttfamily)`

  Typewriter.

`\textnormal (\normalfont)`

  Main document font.

Although it also changes fonts, the `\emph{text}` command is semantic, for text to be emphasized, and should not be used as a substitute for `\textit`. For example, `\emph{start text \emph{middle text} end text}` will result in the start text and end text in italics, but middle text will be in roman.

LaTeX also provides the following commands, which unconditionally switch to the given style, that is, are not cumulative. Also, they are used differently than the above commands: `{\cmd...}` instead of `\cmd{...}`. These are two unrelated constructs.

`\bf`

  Switch to bold face.

`\cal`

  Switch to calligraphic letters for math.

`\it`

  Italics.

`\rm`

  Roman.

`\sc`

  Small caps.

`\sf`

  Sans serif.

`\sl`

  Slanted (oblique).

`\tt`

  Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width).

The `\em` command is the unconditional version of `\emph`.

(Some people consider the unconditional font-switching commands, such as `\tt`, obsolete and that only the cumulative commands (`\texttt`) should be used. Others think that both sets of commands have their place and sometimes an unconditional font switch is precisely what you want; for one example, see `description`.)

The following commands are for use in math mode. They are not cumulative, so `\mathbf{\mathit{symbol}}` does not create a boldface and italic symbol; instead, it will just be in italics. This is because typically math symbols need consistent typographic treatment, regardless of the surrounding environment.

`\mathrm`

  Roman, for use in math mode.

`\mathbf`

  Boldface, for use in math mode.

`\mathsf`

  Sans serif, for use in math mode.

`\mathtt`

  Typewriter, for use in math mode.

`\mathit`
`(\mit)`

  Italics, for use in math mode.

`\mathnormal`

  For use in math mode, e.g., inside another type style declaration.

`\mathcal`

  Calligraphic letters, for use in math mode.

In addition, the command `\mathversion{bold}` can be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas. `\mathversion{normal}` restores the default.

Finally, the command `\oldstylenums{numerals}` will typeset so-called “old-style” numerals, which have differing heights and depths (and sometimes widths) from the standard “lining” numerals, which all have the same height as upper-case letters. LaTeX’s default fonts support this, and will respect `\textbf` (but not other styles; there are no italic old-style numerals in Computer Modern). Many other fonts have old-style numerals also; sometimes the `textcomp` package must be loaded, and sometimes package options are provided to make them the default. FAQ entry: http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=osf.

### 4.2 Font sizes

The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX. The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used (in points) with the ‘`10pt`’, ‘`11pt`’, and ‘`12pt`’ document size options, respectively (see Document class options).

Command | `10pt` | `11pt` | `12pt`
--- | --- | --- | ---
`\tiny` | 5 | 6 | 6
`\scriptsize` | 7 | 8 | 8
`\footnotesize` | 8 | 9 | 10
`\small` | 9 | 10 | 10.95
`\normalsize` (default) | 10 | 10.95 | 12
`\large` | 12 | 12 | 14.4
`\Large` | 14.4 | 14.4 | 17.28
`\LARGE` | 17.28 | 17.28 | 20.74
`\huge` | 20.74 | 20.74 | 24.88
`\Huge` | 24.88 | 24.88 | 24.88

The commands as listed here are “declaration forms”. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. You can also use the environment form of these commands; for instance, `\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}`.

### 4.3 Low-level font commands

These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available ones.

`\fontencoding{encoding}`

  Select the font encoding, the encoding of the output font. There are a large number of valid encodings. The most common are `OT1`, Knuth’s original encoding for Computer Modern (the default), and `T1`, also known as the Cork encoding, which has support for the accented characters used by the most widespread European languages (German, French, Italian, Polish and others), which allows TeX to hyphenate words containing accented letters.

`\fontfamily{family}`

  Select the font family. The web page http://www.tug.dk/FontCatalogue/ provides one way to browse through many of the fonts easily used with LaTeX. Here are examples of some common families:

  - `pag``` Avant Garde
  - `fvs``` Bitstream Vera Sans
  - `pbk``` Bookman
  - `bch``` Charter
  - `ccr``` Computer Concrete
  - `cmr``` Computer Modern
  - `pcr``` Courier
  - `phv``` Helvetica
  - `fi4``` Inconsolata
  - `lmr``` Latin Modern
  - `lmss` Latin Modern Sans
  - `lmtt` Latin Modern Typewriter
  - `pnc``` New Century Schoolbook
  - `ppl``` Palatino
  - `ptm``` Times
  - `uncl` Uncial
  - `put``` Utopia
  - `pzc``` Zapf Chancery
`\fontseries{series}`

  Select the font series. A series combines a weight and a width. Typically, a font supports only a few of the possible combinations. Some common combined series values include:

  - `m``` Medium (normal)
  - `b``` Bold
  - `c``` Condensed
  - `bc` Bold condensed
  - `bx` Bold extended

  The possible values for weight, individually, are:

  - `ul` Ultra light
  - `el` Extra light
  - `l``` Light
  - `sl` Semi light
  - `m``` Medium (normal)
  - `sb` Semi bold
  - `b``` Bold
  - `eb` Extra bold
  - `ub` Ultra bold

  The possible values for width, individually, are (the percentages are just guides and are not followed precisely by all fonts):

  - `uc` Ultra condensed, 50%
  - `ec` Extra condensed, 62.5%
  - `c``` Condensed, 75%
  - `sc` Semi condensed, 87.5%
  - `m``` Medium, 100%
  - `sx` Semi expanded, 112.5%
  - `x``` Expanded, 125%
  - `ex` Extra expanded, 150%
  - `ux` Ultra expanded, 200%

  When forming the series string from the weight and width, drop the `m` that stands for medium weight or medium width, unless both weight and width are `m`, in which case use just one (‘``m``’).

`\fontshape{shape}`

  Select font shape. Valid shapes are:

  - `n``` Upright (normal)
  - `it` Italic
  - `sl` Slanted (oblique)
  - `sc` Small caps
  - `ui` Upright italics
  - `ol` Outline

  The two last shapes are not available for most font families, and small caps are often missing as well.

`\fontsize{size}{skip}`

  Set the font size and the line spacing. The unit of both parameters defaults to points (`pt`). The line spacing is the nominal vertical space between lines, baseline to baseline. It is stored in the parameter `\baselineskip`. The default `\baselineskip` for the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the `\fontsize`. Changing `\baselineskip` directly is inadvisable since its value is reset every time a size change happens; see `\baselinestretch`, next.

`\baselinestretch`

  LaTeX multiplies the line spacing by the value of the `\baselinestretch` parameter; the default factor is 1. A change takes effect when `\selectfont` (see below) is called. You can make line skip changes happen for the entire document by doing `\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{2.0}` in the preamble.

  However, the best way to double-space a document is to use the `setspace` package. In addition to offering a number of spacing options, this package keeps the line spacing single-spaced in places where that is typically desirable, such as footnotes and figure captions. See the package documentation.

`\linespread{factor}`

  Equivalent to `\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{factor}`, and therefore must be followed by `\selectfont` to have any effect. Best specified in the preamble, or use the `setspace` package, as just described.

`\selectfont`

  The effects of the font commands described above do not happen until `\selectfont` is called, as in `\fontfamily{familyname}\selectfont`. It is often useful to put this in a macro:
  `\newcommand*{\myfont}{\fontfamily{familyname}\selectfont}`
  (see \newcommand & \renewcommand).

`\usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}`

  The same as invoking `\fontencoding`, `\fontfamily`, `\fontseries` and `\fontshape` with the given parameters, followed by `\selectfont`. For example:

      \usefont{ot1}{cmr}{m}{n}

## 5 Layout

Commands for controlling the general page layout.

### 5.1 `\onecolumn`

The `\onecolumn` declaration starts a new page and produces single-column output. If the document is given the class option `onecolumn` then this is the default behavior (see Document class options).

This command is fragile (see \protect).

### 5.2 `\twocolumn`

Synopsis:

    \twocolumn[prelim one column text]

The `\twocolumn` declaration starts a new page and produces two-column output. If the document is given the class option `twocolumn` then this is the default (see Document class options).

If the optional prelim one column text argument is present, it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts.

This command is fragile (see \protect).

These parameters control typesetting in two-column output:

`\columnsep`

  The distance between columns. The default is 35pt. Change it with a command such as `\setlength{\columnsep}{40pt}` You must change it before the two column environment starts; in the preamble is a good place.

`\columnseprule`

  The width of the rule between columns. The rule appears halfway between the two columns. The default is 0pt, meaning that there is no rule. Change it with a command such as `\setlength{\columnseprule}{0.4pt}`, before the two-column environment starts.

`\columnwidth`

  The width of a single column. In one-column mode this is equal to `\textwidth`. In two-column mode by default LaTeX sets the width of each of the two columns to be half of `\textwidth` minus `\columnsep`.

In a two-column document, the starred environments `table*` and `figure*` are two columns wide, whereas the unstarred environments `table` and `figure` take up only one column (see figure and see table). LaTeX places starred floats at the top of a page. The following parameters control float behavior of two-column output.

`\dbltopfraction`

  The maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupied by two-column wide floats. The default is 0.7, meaning that the height of a `table*` or `figure*` environment must not exceed `0.7\textheight` . If the height of your starred float environment exceeeds this then you can take one of the following actions to prevent it from floating all the way to the back of the document:

  - Use the `[tp]` location specifier to tell LaTeX to try to put the bulky float on a page by itself, as well as at the top of a page.
  - Use the `[t!]` location specifier to override the effect of `\dbltopfraction` for this particular float.
  - Increase the value of `\dbltopfraction` to a suitably large number, to avoid going to float pages so soon.

  You can redefine it, for instance with `\renewcommand{\dbltopfraction}{0.9}`.

`\dblfloatpagefraction`

  For a float page of two-column wide floats, this is the minimum fraction that must be occupied by floats, limiting the amount of blank space. LaTeX’s default is `0.5`. Change it with `\renewcommand`.

`\dblfloatsep`

  On a float page of two-column wide floats, this length is the distance between floats, at both the top and bottom of the page. The default is `12pt plus2pt minus2pt` for a document set at `10pt` or `11pt`, and `14pt plus2pt minus4pt` for a document set at `12pt`.

`\dbltextfloatsep`

  This length is the distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a page and the main text. The default is `20pt plus2pt minus4pt`.

`\dbltopnumber`

  On a float page of two-column wide floats, this counter gives the maximum number of floats allowed at the top of the page. The LaTeX default is `2`.

This example shows the use of the optional argument of `\twocolumn` to create a title that spans the two-column article:

    \documentclass[twocolumn]{article}
    \newcommand{\authormark}[1]{\textsuperscript{#1}}
    \begin{document}
    \twocolumn[{% inside this optional argument goes one-column text
     \centering
     \LARGE The Title \\[1.5em]
     \large Author One\authormark{1},
            Author Two\authormark{2},
            Author Three\authormark{1} \\[1em]
     \normalsize
     \begin{tabular}{p{.2\textwidth}@{\hspace{2em}}p{.2\textwidth}}
       \authormark{1}Department one  &\authormark{2}Department two \\
        School one                   &School two
     \end{tabular}\\[3em] % space below title part
    }]

    Two column text here.

### 5.3 `\flushbottom`

The `\flushbottom` command can go at any point in the document body. It makes all later pages the same height, stretching the vertical space where necessary to fill out the page.

If TeX cannot satisfactorily stretch the vertical space in a page then you get a message like ‘`Underfull \vbox (badness 10000) has occurred while \output is active`’. You can change to `\raggedbottom` (see below). Alternatively, you can try to adjust the `textheight` to be compatible, or you can add some vertical stretch glue between lines or between paragraphs, as in `\setlength{\parskip}{0ex plus0.1ex}`. In a final editing stage you can adjust the height of individual pages (see \enlargethispage).

This is the default only if you select the `twoside` document class option (see Document class options).

### 5.4 `\raggedbottom`

The `\raggedbottom` command can go at any point in the document body. It makes all later pages the natural height of the material on that page; no rubber lengths will be stretched. Thus, in a two-sided document the facing pages may be different heights. See also `\flushbottom` above.

This is the default unless you select the `twoside` document class option (see Document class options).

### 5.5 Page layout parameters

`\columnsep`
`\columnseprule`
`\columnwidth`

  The distance between the two columns, the width of a rule between the columns, and the width of the columns, when the document class option `twocolumn` is in effect (see Document class options). See \twocolumn.

`\headheight`

  Height of the box that contains the running head. The default in the `article`, `report`, and `book` classes is ‘`12pt`’, at all type sizes.

`\headsep`

  Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of the main text. The default in the `article` and `report` classes is ‘`25pt`’. In the `book` class the default is: if the document is set at 10pt then it is ‘`0.25in`’, and at 11pt and 12pt it is ‘`0.275in`’.

`\footskip`

  Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of the page footer. The default in the `article` and `report` classes is ‘`30pt`’. In the `book` class the default is: when the type size is 10pt the default is ‘`0.35in`’, while at 11pt it is ‘`0.38in`’, and at 12pt it is ‘`30pt`’.

`\linewidth`

  Width of the current line, decreased for each nested `list` (see list). That is, the nominal value for `\linewidth` is to equal `\textwidth` but for each nested list the `\linewidth` is decreased by the sum of that list’s `\leftmargin` and `\rightmargin` (see itemize).

`\marginparpush`
`\marginsep`
`\marginparwidth`

  The minimum vertical space between two marginal notes, the horizontal space between the text body and the marginal notes, and the horizontal width of the notes.

  Normally marginal notes appear on the outside of the page, but the declaration `\reversemarginpar` changes that (and `\normalmarginpar` changes it back).

  The defaults for `\marginparpush` in both `book` and `article` classes are: ‘`7pt`’ if the document is set at 12pt, and ‘`5pt`’ if the document is set at 11pt or 10pt.

  For `\marginsep`, in `article` class the default is ‘`10pt`’ except if the document is set at 10pt and in two-column mode where the default is ‘`11pt`’.

  For `\marginsep` in `book` class the default is ‘`10pt`’ in two-column mode and ‘`7pt`’ in one-column mode.

  For `\marginparwidth` in both `book` and `article` classes, in two-column mode the default is 60% of `\paperwidth - \textwidth`, while in one-column mode it is 50% of that distance.

`\oddsidemargin`
`\evensidemargin`

  The `\oddsidemargin` is the extra distance between the left side of the page and the text’s left margin, on odd-numbered pages when the document class option `twoside` is chosen and on all pages when `oneside` is in effect. When `twoside` is in effect, on even-numbered pages the extra distance on the left is `evensidemargin`.

  LaTeX’s default is that `\oddsidemargin` is 40% of the difference between `\paperwidth` and `\textwidth`, and `\evensidemargin` is the remainder.

`\paperheight`

  The height of the paper, as distinct from the height of the print area. It is normally set with a document class option, as in `\documentclass[a4paper]{article}` (see Document class options).

`\paperwidth`

  The width of the paper, as distinct from the width of the print area. It is normally set with a document class option, as in `\documentclass[a4paper]{article}` (see Document class options).

`\textheight`

  The normal vertical height of the page body. If the document is set at a nominal type size of 10pt then for an `article` or `report` the default is ‘`43\baselineskip`’, while for a `book` it is ‘`41\baselineskip`’. At a type size of 11pt the default is ‘`38\baselineskip`’ for all document classes. At 12pt it is ‘`36\baselineskip`’ for all classes.

`\textwidth`

  The full horizontal width of the entire page body. For an `article` or `report` document, the default is ‘`345pt`’ when the chosen type size is 10pt, the default is ‘`360pt`’ at 11pt, and it is ‘`390pt`’ at 12pt. For a `book` document, the default is ‘`4.5in`’ at a type size of 10pt, and ‘`5in`’ at 11pt or 12pt.

  In multi-column output, `\textwidth` remains the width of the entire page body, while `\columnwidth` is the width of one column (see \twocolumn).

  In lists (see list), `\textwidth` remains the width of the entire page body (and `\columnwidth` the width of the entire column), while `\linewidth` may decrease for nested lists.

  Inside a minipage (see minipage) or `\parbox` (see \parbox), all the width-related parameters are set to the specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of the `minipage` or `\parbox`.

  This entry is included for completeness: `\hsize` is the TeX primitive parameter used when text is broken into lines. It should not be used in normal LaTeX documents.

`\topmargin`

  Space between the top of the TeX page (one inch from the top of the paper, by default) and the top of the header. The value is computed based on many other parameters: `\paperheight - 2in - \headheight - \headsep - \textheight - \footskip`, and then divided by two.

`\topskip`

  Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of the first line of text. For the standard classes, the default is the same as the font size, e.g., ‘`10pt`’ at a type size of 10pt.

### 5.6 Floats

Some typographic elements, such as figures and tables, cannot be broken across pages. They must be typeset outside of the normal flow of text, for instance floating to the top of a later page.

LaTeX can have a number of different classes of floating material. The default is the two classes, `figure` (see figure) and `table` (see table), but you can create a new class with the package `float`.

Within any one float class LaTeX always respects the order, so that the first figure in a document source must be typeset before the second figure. However, LaTeX may mix the classes, so it can happen that while the first table appears in the source before the first figure, it appears in the output after it.

The placement of floats is subject to parameters, given below, that limit the number of floats that can appear at the top of a page, and the bottom, etc. If so many floats are queued up that the limits prevent them all from fitting on a page then LaTeX places what it can and defers the rest to the next page. In this way, floats may be typset far from their place in the source. In particular, a float that is big can migrate to the end of the document. But then because all floats in a class must appear in sequential order, every subsequent float in that class also appears at the end.

In addition to changing the parameters, for each float you can tweak where the float placement algorithm tries to place it by using its placement argument. The possible values are a sequence of the letters below. The default for both `figure` and `table`, in both `article` and `book` classes, is `tbp`.

`t`

  (Top)—at the top of a text page.

`b`

  (Bottom)—at the bottom of a text page. (However, `b` is not allowed for full-width floats (`figure*`) with double-column output. To ameliorate this, use the `stfloats` or `dblfloatfix` package, but see the discussion at caveats in the FAQ: http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=2colfloat.

`h`

  (Here)—at the position in the text where the `figure` environment appears. However, `h` is not allowed by itself; `t` is automatically added.

  To absolutely force a float to appear “here”, you can `\usepackage{float}` and use the `H` specifier which it defines. For further discussion, see the FAQ entry at http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=figurehere.

`p`

  (Page of floats)—on a separate float page, which is a page containing no text, only floats.

`!`

  Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, LaTeX ignores the restrictions on both the number of floats that can appear and the relative amounts of float and non-float text on the page. The `!` specifier does not mean “put the float here”; see above.

Note: the order in which letters appear in the placement argument does not change the order in which LaTeX tries to place the float; for instance, `btp` has the same effect as `tbp`. All that placement does is that if a letter is not present then the algorithm does not try that location. Thus, LaTeX’s default of `tbp` is to try every location except placing the float where it occurs in the source.

To prevent LaTeX from moving floats to the end of the document or a chapter you can use a `\clearpage` command to start a new page and insert all pending floats. If a pagebreak is undesirable then you can use the `afterpage` package and issue `\afterpage{\clearpage}`. This will wait until the current page is finished and then flush all outstanding floats.

LaTeX can typeset a float before where it appears in the source (although on the same output page) if there is a `t` specifier in the placement paramater. If this is not desired, and deleting the `t` is not acceptable as it keeps the float from being placed at the top of the next page, then you can prevent it by either using the `flafter` package or using the command `\suppressfloats[t]`, which causes floats for the top position on this page to moved to the next page.

Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and non-float text (change them with `\renewcommand{parameter}{decimal between 0 and 1}`):

`\bottomfraction`

  The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occupied by floats at the bottom; default ‘`.3`’.

`\floatpagefraction`

  The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats; default ‘`.5`’.

`\textfraction`

  Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a different page. The default is ‘`.2`’.

`\topfraction`

  Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before floats; default ‘`.7`’.

Parameters relating to vertical space around floats (change them with `\setlength{parameter}{length expression}`):

`\floatsep`

  Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default ‘`12pt plus2pt minus2pt`’.

`\intextsep`

  Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default ‘`12pt plus2pt minus2pt`’ for 10 point and 11 point documents, and ‘`14pt plus4pt minus4pt`’ for 12 point documents.

`\textfloatsep`

  Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; default ‘`20pt plus2pt minus4pt`’.

Counters relating to the number of floats on a page (change them with `\setcounter{ctrname}{natural number}`):

`bottomnumber`

  Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text page; default 1.

`dbltopnumber`

  Maximum number of full-sized floats that can appear at the top of a two-column page; default 2.

`topnumber`

  Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page; default 2.

`totalnumber`

  Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3.

The principal TeX FAQ entry relating to floats http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=floats contains suggestions for relaxing LaTeX’s default parameters to reduce the problem of floats being pushed to the end. A full explaination of the float placement algorithm is Frank Mittelbach’s article “How to infuence the position of float environments like figure and table in LaTeX?” http://latex-project.org/papers/tb111mitt-float.pdf.

## 6 Sectioning

Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units:

`\part`
`\chapter`

  (`report` and `book` class only)

`\section`
`\subsection`
`\subsubsection`
`\paragraph`
`\subparagraph`

All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g.,

    \chapter[toctitle]{title}

In addition to providing the heading title in the main text, the section title can appear in two other places:

1. The table of contents.
2. The running head at the top of the page.

You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument toctitle that, when given, specifies the text for these other places.

Also, all sectioning commands have `*`-forms that print title as usual, but do not include a number and do not make an entry in the table of contents. For instance:

    \section*{Preamble}

The `\appendix` command changes the way following sectional units are numbered. The `\appendix` command itself generates no text and does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this command is something like

    \chapter{A Chapter}
    …
    \appendix
    \chapter{The First Appendix}

The `secnumdepth` counter controls printing of section numbers. The setting

    \setcounter{secnumdepth}{level}

suppresses heading numbers at any depth > level, where `chapter` is level zero. (See \setcounter.)

## 7 Cross references

One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer the reader to them, as in “See Figure 3 for more details.”

### 7.1 `\label`

Synopsis:

    \label{key}

A `\label` command appearing in ordinary text assigns to key the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered environment assigns that number to key. The assigned number can be retrieved with the `\ref{key}` command (see \ref).

Thus, in the example below the key `sec:test` holds the number of the current section and the key `fig:test` that of the figure. (Incidentally, labels must appear after captions in figures and tables.)

    \section{section name}
    \label{sec:test}
    This is Section~\ref{sec:test}.
    \begin{figure}
      ...
      \caption{caption text}
      \label{fig:test}
    \end{figure}
    See Figure~\ref{fig:test}.

A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or common punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished, as usual.

Although the name can be more or less anything, a common convention is to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a colon or period. This helps to avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name. Some commonly-used prefixes:

`ch`

  for chapters

`sec`

  for lower-level sectioning commands

`fig`

  for figures

`tab`

  for tables

`eq`

  for equations

Thus, a label for a figure would look like `fig:test` or `fig.test`.

### 7.2 `\pageref{key}`

Synopsis:

    \pageref{key}

The `\pageref`{key} command produces the page number of the place in the text where the corresponding `\label`{key} command appears.

### 7.3 `\ref{key}`

Synopsis:

    \ref{key}

The `\ref` command produces the number of the sectional unit, equation, footnote, figure, …, of the corresponding `\label` command (see \label). It does not produce any text, such as the word ‘Section’ or ‘Figure’, just the bare number itself.

## 8 Environments

LaTeX provides many environments for marking off certain text. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner:

    \begin{envname}
    ...
    \end{envname}

### 8.1 `abstract`

Synopsis:

    \begin{abstract}
    ...
    \end{abstract}

Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs.

### 8.2 `array`

Synopsis:

    \begin{array}{cols}
    column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\
    ...
    \end{array}

or

    \begin{array}[pos]{cols}
    column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\
    ...
    \end{array}

Produce a mathematical array. This environment can only be used in math mode, and normally appears within a displayed mathematics environment such as `equation` (see equation). Column entries are separated by an ampersand (`&`). Rows are terminated with double-backslashes (`\\`) (see \\).

The required argument cols describes the number of columns, their alignment, and the formatting of the intercolumn regions. See tabular for the complete description of cols, and of the other common features of the two environments, including the optional pos argument.

There are two ways that `array` diverges from `tabular`. The first is that `array` entries are typeset in mathematics mode, in textstyle (except if the cols definition specifies the column with `@p{..}`, which causes the entry to be typeset in text mode). The second is that, instead of `tabular`’s parameter `\tabcolsep`, LaTeX’s intercolumn space in an array is governed by `\arraycolsep` which gives half the width between columns. The default for this is ‘`5pt`’.

To obtain arrays with braces the standard is to use the `amsmath` package. It comes with environments `pmatrix` for an array surrounded by parentheses `(..)`, `bmatrix` for an array surrounded by square brackets `[..]`, `Bmatrix` for an array surrounded by curly braces `{..}`, `vmatrix` for an array surrounded by vertical bars `|..|`, and `Vmatrix` for an array surrounded by double vertical bars `||..||`, along with a number of other array constructs.

Here is an example of an array:

    \begin{equation}
      \begin{array}{cr}
        \sqrt{y}  &12.3 \\
        x^2       &3.4
      \end{array}
    \end{equation}

### 8.3 `center`

Synopsis:

    \begin{center}
     .. text ..
    \end{center}

Environment to create a sequence of lines that are centered within the left and right margins on the current page. If the text in the environment body is too long to fit on a line, LaTeX will insert line breaks that avoid hyphenation and avoid stretching or shrinking any interword space. To force a line break at a particular spot use double-backslash `\\` (see \\).

This environment inserts space above and below the text body. See \centering to avoid such space, for example inside a `figure` environment.

In this example, depending on the line width, LaTeX may choose a break for the part before the double backslash, will center the line or two, then will break at the double backslash, and will center the ending.

    \begin{center}
      My father considered that anyone who went to chapel and didn't drink
      alcohol was not to be tolerated.\\
      I grew up in that belief.  --Richard Burton
    \end{center}

A double backslash after the final line is optional.

#### 8.3.1 `\centering`

Declaration that causes material in its scope to be centered. It is most often used inside an environment such as `figure`, or in a `parbox`.

Unlike the `center` environment, the `\centering` command does not add vertical space above and below the text.

It also does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. If `ww {\centering xx \\ yy} zz` is surrounded by blank lines then LaTeX will create a paragraph whose first line ‘`ww xx`’ is centered and whose second line, not centered, contains ‘`yy zz`’. Usually what is desired is for the scope of the declaration to contain a blank line or the `\end` command of an environment such as `figure` or `table` that ends the paragraph unit. Thus, if `{\centering xx \\ yy\par} zz` is surrounded by blank lines then it makes a new paragraph with two centered lines ‘`xx`’ and ‘`yy`’, followed by a new paragraph with ‘`zz`’ that is formatted as usual. See also the following example.

This example’s `\centering` causes the graphic to be horizontally centered.

    \begin{figure}
      \centering
      \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{ctan_lion.png}
      \caption{CTAN Lion}  \label{fig:CTANLion}
    \end{figure}

The scope of the `\centering` ends with the `\end{figure}`.

### 8.4 `description`

Synopsis:

    \begin{description}
    \item [first label] text of first item
    \item [second label] text of second item
      ...
    \end{description}

Environment to make a labelled list of items. Each item’s label is typeset in bold, flush-left. Each item’s text may contain multiple paragraphs. Although the labels on the items are optional there is no sensible default, so all items should have labels.

The list consists of at least one item; see \item (having no items causes the LaTeX error ‘`Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item`’). Each item is produced with an `\item` command.

Since the labels are in bold style, if the label text calls for a font change given in argument style (see Font styles) then it will come out bold. For instance, if the label text calls for typewriter with `\item[\texttt{label text}]` then it will appear in bold typewriter, if that is available. The simplest way to get non-bolded typewriter is to use declaritive style `\item[{\tt label text}]`. Similarly, get normal text use `\item[{\rm label text}]`.

For other major LaTeX labelled list environments, see itemize and enumerate. For information about customizing list layout, see list; also, the package `enumitem` is useful for this.

This example shows the environment used for a sequence of definitions.

    \begin{definition}
      \item[lama] A priest.
      \item[llama] A beast.
    \end{definition}

### 8.5 `displaymath`

Synopsis:

    \begin{displaymath}
      .. math text ..
    \end{displaymath}

Environment to typeset the math text on its own line, in display style and centered. To make the text be flush-left use the global option `fleqn`; see Document class options.

LaTeX will not break the math text across lines.

In the `displaymath` environment no equation number is added to the math text. One way to get an equation number is to use the `equation` environment (see equation).

Note that the `amsmath` package has extensive displayed equation facilities. Those facilities are the best approach for such output in new documents. For example, there are a number of options in that package for having math text broken across lines.

The construct `\[..math text..\]` is essentially a synonym for `\begin{displaymath}..math text..\end{displaymath}` but the latter is easier to work with in the source file; for instance, searching for a square bracket may get false positives but the word `displaymath` will likely be unique. (The construct `$$..math text..$$` from Plain TeX is sometimes mistakenly used as a synonym for `displaymath`. It is not a synonym, because the `displaymath` environment checks that it isn’t started in math mode and that it ends in math mode begun by the matching environment start, because the `displaymath` environment has different vertical spacing, and because the `displaymath` environment honors the `fleqn` option.)

The output from this example is centered and alone on its line.

    \begin{displaymath}
      \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3
    \end{displaymath}

Also, the integral sign is larger than the inline version `\( \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \)` produces.

### 8.6 `document`

The `document` environment encloses the entire body of a document. It is required in every LaTeX document. See Starting and ending.

#### \AtBeginDocument

Synopsis:

    \AtBeginDocument{code}

Save code and execute it when `\begin{document}` is executed, at the very end of the preamble. The code is executed after the font selection tables have been set up, so the normal font for the document is the current font. However, the code is executed as part of the preamble so you cannot do any typesetting with it.

You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines will be executed in the order that you gave them.

#### \AtEndDocument

Synopsis:

    \AtEndDocument{code}

Save code and execute it near the end of the document. Specifically, it is executed when `\end{document}` is executed, before the final page is finished and before any leftover floating environments are processed. If you want some of the code to be executed after these two processes then include a `\clearpage` at the appropriate point in code.

You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines will be executed in the order that you gave them.

### 8.7 `enumerate`

Synopsis:

    \begin{enumerate}
    \item [first label] text of first item
    \item [second label] text of second item
    ...
    \end{enumerate}

Environment to produce a numbered list of items. The format of the label numbering depends on whether this environment is nested within another; see below.

The list consists of at least one item. Having no items causes the LaTeX error ‘`Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item`’. Each item is produced with an `\item` command.

This example lists the top two finishers in the 1908 Olympic marathon.

    \begin{enumerate}
     \item Johnny Hayes (USA)
     \item Charles Hefferon (RSA)
    \end{enumerate}

Enumerations may be nested within a paragraph-making environment, including `itemize` (see itemize), `description` (see description) and `enumeration`, up to four levels deep. The format of the label produced depends on the place in the nesting. This gives LaTeX’s default for the format at each nesting level (where 1 is the outermost level):

1. arabic number followed by a period: ‘`1.`’, ‘`2.`’, …
2. lower case letter inside parentheses: ‘`(a)`’, ‘`(b)`’ …
3. lower case roman numeral followed by a period: ‘`i.`’, ‘`ii.`’, …
4. upper case letter followed by a period: ‘`A.`’, ‘`B.`’, …

The `enumerate` environment uses the counters `\enumi` through `\enumiv` counters (see Counters). If you use the optional argument to `\item` then the counter is not incremented for that item (see \item).

To change the format of the label use `\renewcommand` (see \newcommand & \renewcommand) on the commands `\labelenumi` through `\labelenumiv`. For instance, this first level list will be labelled with uppercase letters, in boldface, and without a trailing period:

    \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textbf{\Alph{enumi}}}
    \begin{enumerate}
      \item eI
      \item bi:
      \item si:
    \end{enumerate}

For a list of counter-labelling commands like `\Alph` see \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.

For more on customizing the layout see list. Also, the package `enumitem` is useful for this.

### 8.8 `eqnarray`

First, a caveat: the `eqnarray` environment is depreciated. It has infelicities that cannot be overcome, including spacing that is inconsistent with other mathematics elements (see the article “Avoid eqnarray!” by Lars Madsen http://tug.org/TUGboat/tb33-1/tb103madsen.pdf). New documents should include the `amsmath` package and use the displayed mathematics environments provided there, such as the `align` environment.

Nevertheless, for completeness and for a reference when working with old documents, a synopsis:

    \begin{eqnarray}
      first formula left  &first formula middle  &first formula right \\
      ...
    \end{eqnarray}

or

    \begin{eqnarray*}
      first formula left  &first formula middle  &first formula right \\
      ...
    \end{eqnarray*}

Display a sequence of equations or inequalities. The left and right sides are typeset in display mode, while the middle is typeset in text mode.

It is similar to a three-column `array` environment, with items within a row separated by an ampersand (`&`), and with rows separated by double backslash `\\`). The starred form of line break (`\\*`) can also be used to separate equations, and will disallow a page break there (see \\).

The unstarred form `eqnarray` places an equation number on every line (using the `equation` counter), unless that line contains a `\nonumber` command. The starred form `eqnarray*` omits equation numbering, while otherwise being the same.

The command `\lefteqn` is used for splitting long formulas across lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of zero width.

This example shows three lines. The first two lines make an inequality, while the third line has not entry on the left side.

    \begin{eqnarray*}
      \lefteqn{x_1+x_2+\cdots+x_n}     \\
        &\leq &y_1+y_2+\cdots+y_n      \\
        &=    &z+y_3+\cdots+y_n
    \end{eqnarray*}

### 8.9 `equation`

Synopsis:

    \begin{equation}
      math text
    \end{equation}

Make a `displaymath` environment (see displaymath) with an equation number in the right margin.

The equation number is generated using the `equation` counter.

Note that the `amsmath` package has extensive displayed equation facilities. Those facilities are the best approach for such output in new documents.

### 8.10 `figure`

Synopsis:

    \begin{figure}[placement]
      figure body
    \caption[loftitle]{title}
    \label{label}
    \end{figure}

or

    \begin{figure*}[placement]
      figure body
    \caption[loftitle]{title}
    \label{label}
    \end{figure*}

A class of floats (see Floats). Because they cannot be split across pages, they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but instead are “floated” to a convenient place, such as the top of a following page.

For the possible values of placement and their effect on the float placement algorithm, see Floats.

The starred form `figure*` is used when a document is in double-column mode (see \twocolumn). It produces a figure that spans both columns, at the top of the page. To add the possibility of placing at a page bottom see the discussion of placement `b` in Floats.

The figure body is typeset in a `parbox` of width `\textwidth` and so it can contain text, commands, etc.

The label is optional; it is used for cross-references (see Cross references). The optional `\caption` command specifies caption text for the figure. By default it is numbered. If loftitle is present, it is used in the list of figures instead of title (see Tables of contents).

This example makes a figure out of a graphic. It requires one of the packages `graphics` or `graphicx`. The graphic, with its caption, will be placed at the top of a page or, if it is pushed to the end of the document, on a page of floats.

    \begin{figure}[t]
      \centering
      \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{CTANlion.png}
      \caption{The CTAN lion, by Duane Bibby}
    \end{figure}

### 8.11 `filecontents`: Write an external file

Synopsis:

    \begin{filecontents}{filename}
      text
    \end{filecontents}

or

    \begin{filecontents*}{filename}
      text
    \end{filecontents*}

Create a file named filename and fill it with text. The unstarred version of the environment `filecontents` prefixes the content of the created file with a header; see the example below. The starred version `filecontents*` does not include the header.

This environment can be used anywhere in the preamble, although it often appears before the `\documentclass` command. It is typically used when a source file requires a nonstandard style or class file. The environment will write that file to the directory containing the source and thus make the source file self-contained. Another use is to include `bib` references in the file, again to make it self-contained.

The environment checks whether a file of that name already exists and if so, does not do anything. There is a `filecontents` package that redefines the `filecontents` environment so that instead of doing nothing in that case, it will overwrite the existing file.

For example, this document

    \documentclass{article}
    \begin{filecontents}{JH.sty}
    \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}
    \end{filecontents}
    \usepackage{JH}
    \begin{document}
    Article by \myname.
    \end{document}

produces this file `JH.sty`.

    %% LaTeX2e file `JH.sty'
    %% generated by the `filecontents' environment
    %% from source `test' on 2015/10/12.
    %%
    \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}

### 8.12 `flushleft`

    \begin{flushleft}
    line1 \\
    line2 \\
    ...
    \end{flushleft}

The `flushleft` environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged right. Each line must be terminated with the string `\\`.

#### 8.12.1 `\raggedright`

The `\raggedright` declaration corresponds to the `flushleft` environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as `quote` or in a `parbox`.

Unlike the `flushleft` environment, the `\raggedright` command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit’s format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or `\end` command that ends the paragraph unit.

### 8.13 `flushright`

    \begin{flushright}
    line1 \\
    line2 \\
    ...
    \end{flushright}

The `flushright` environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged left. Each line must be terminated with the control sequence `\\`.

#### 8.13.1 `\raggedleft`

The `\raggedleft` declaration corresponds to the `flushright` environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as `quote` or in a `parbox`.

Unlike the `flushright` environment, the `\raggedleft` command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit’s format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or `\end` command that ends the paragraph unit.

### 8.14 `itemize`

Synopsis:

    \begin{itemize}
    \item item1
    \item item2
    ...
    \end{itemize}

The `itemize` environment produces an “unordered”, “bulleted” list. Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as `enumerate` (see enumerate).

Each item of an `itemize` list begins with an `\item` command. There must be at least one `\item` command within the environment.

By default, the marks at each level look like this:

1. • (bullet)
2. -- (bold en-dash)
3. * (asterisk)
4. . (centered dot, rendered here as a period)

The `itemize` environment uses the commands `\labelitemi` through `\labelitemiv` to produce the default label. So, you can use `\renewcommand` to change the labels. For instance, to have the first level use diamonds:

    \renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$}

The `\leftmargini` through `\leftmarginvi` parameters define the distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the left margin of the list. By convention, `\leftmargin` is set to the appropriate `\leftmarginN` when a new level of nesting is entered.

The defaults vary from ‘`.5em`’ (highest levels of nesting) to ‘`2.5em`’ (first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode. This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists:

    \setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em

Some parameters that affect list formatting:

`\itemindent`

  Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero.

`\labelsep`

  Space between the label and text of an item; default ‘`.5em`’.

`\labelwidth`

  Width of the label; default ‘`2em`’, or ‘`1.5em`’ in two-column mode.

`\listparindent`

  Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within a list item; default ‘`0pt`’.

`\rightmargin`

  Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the enclosing environment; default ‘`0pt`’, except in the `quote`, `quotation`, and `verse` environments, where it is set equal to `\leftmargin`.

Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather loose, by default).

`\itemsep`

  Vertical space between items. The default is `2pt plus1pt minus1pt` for `10pt` documents, `3pt plus2pt minus1pt` for `11pt`, and `4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt` for `12pt`.

`\parsep`

  Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item. Defaults are the same as `\itemsep`.

`\topsep`

  Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph. For top-level lists, the default is `8pt plus2pt minus4pt` for `10pt` documents, `9pt plus3pt minus5pt` for `11pt`, and `10pt plus4pt minus6pt` for `12pt`. These are reduced for nested lists.

`\partopsep`

  Extra space added to `\topsep` when the list environment starts a paragraph. The default is `2pt plus1pt minus1pt` for `10pt` documents, `3pt plus1pt minus1pt` for `11pt`, and `3pt plus2pt minus2pt` for `12pt`.

Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide space between items. Here is an example defining an `itemize*` environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs within a single item (`\parskip` is not list-specific, see \parskip):

    \newenvironment{itemize*}%
      {\begin{itemize}%
        \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}%
        \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}%
        \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}%
      {\end{itemize}}

### 8.15 `letter` environment: writing letters

This environment is used for creating letters. See Letters.

### 8.16 `list`

The `list` environment is a generic environment which is used for defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in documents, but often in macros.

    \begin{list}{labeling}{spacing}
    \item item1
    \item item2
    ...
    \end{list}

The mandatory labeling argument specifies how items should be labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to `\item`). This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the label. It can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands.

The mandatory spacing argument contains commands to change the spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be empty, i.e., `{}`, which leaves the default spacing.

The width used for typesetting the list items is specified by `\linewidth` (see Page layout parameters).

#### \item

Synopsis:

    \item text of item

or

    \item[optional label] text of item

An entry in a list. The entries are prefixed by a label, whose default depends on the list type.

Because the optional argument optional label is surrounded by square brackets (`[` and `]`), to use square brackets inside the optional argument you must hide them inside curly braces, as in `\item[Close square bracket, {]}]`. Similarly, to use an open square bracket as first character in the text of the item, also hide it inside curly braces. See LaTeX command syntax.

In this example the `enumerate` list has two items that use the default label and one that uses the optional label.

    \begin{enumerate}
      \item Moe
      \item[sometimes] Shemp
      \item Larry
    \end{enumerate}

The first item is labelled ‘`1.`’, the second item is labelled ‘`sometimes`’, and the third item is labelled ‘`2.`’ (note that, because of the optional label in the second item, the third item does not get a ‘`3.`’).

### 8.17 `math`

Synopsis:

    \begin{math}
    math
    \end{math}

The `math` environment inserts the given math within the running text. `\(...\)` and `$...$` are synonyms. See Math formulas.

### 8.18 `minipage`

    \begin{minipage}[position][height][inner-pos]{width}
    text
    \end{minipage}

The `minipage` environment typesets its body text in a block that will not be broken across pages. This is similar to the `\parbox` command (see \parbox), but unlike `\parbox`, other paragraph-making environments can be used inside a minipage.

The arguments are the same as for `\parbox` (see \parbox).

By default, paragraphs are not indented in the `minipage` environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as `\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}` command.

Footnotes in a `minipage` environment are handled in a way that is particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A `\footnote` or `\footnotetext` command puts the footnote at the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the `\mpfootnote` counter instead of the ordinary `footnote` counter (see Counters).

However, don’t put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.

### 8.19 `picture`

    \begin{picture}(width,height)(xoffset,yoffset)
    … picture commands …
    \end{picture}

The `picture` environment allows you to create just about any kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and a minus sign—a number like `5`, `0.3` or `-3.1416`. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length `\unitlength`, so if `\unitlength` has been set to `1cm`, then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters.

You should only change the value of `\unitlength`, using the `\setlength` command, outside of a `picture` environment. The default value is `1pt`.

A position is a pair of coordinates, such as `(2.4,-5)`, specifying the point with x-coordinate `2.4` and y-coordinate `-5`. Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.

The `picture` environment has one mandatory argument which is a position (width,height), which specifies the size of the picture. The environment produces a rectangular box with these width and height.

The `picture` environment also has an optional position argument (xoffset,yoffset), following the size argument, that can change the origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture (thereby determining the origin). For example, if `\unitlength` has been set to `1mm`, the command

    \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)

produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture, you typically omit the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate optional argument.

The environment’s mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even off the page. The picture’s nominal size is used by LaTeX in determining how much room to leave for it.

Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the `\put` command. The command

    \put (11.3,-.3){...}

puts the object specified by `...` in the picture, with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). The reference points for various objects will be described below.

The `\put` command creates an LR box. You can put anything that can go in an `\mbox` (see \mbox) in the text argument of the `\put` command. When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left corner of the box.

The `picture` commands are described in the following sections.

#### 8.19.1 `\circle`

Synopsis:

    \circle[*]{diameter}

The `\circle` command produces a circle with a diameter as close to the specified one as possible. The `*`-form of the command draws a solid circle.

Circles up to 40pt can be drawn.

#### 8.19.2 `\makebox`

Synopsis:

    \makebox(width,height)[position]{text}

The `\makebox` command for the picture environment is similar to the normal `\makebox` command except that you must specify a width and height in multiples of `\unitlength`.

The optional argument, `[position]`, specifies the quadrant that your text appears in. You may select up to two of the following:

`t`

  Moves the item to the top of the rectangle.

`b`

  Moves the item to the bottom.

`l`

  Moves the item to the left.

`r`

  Moves the item to the right.

See \makebox.

#### 8.19.3 `\framebox`

Synopsis:

    \framebox(width,height)[pos]{...}

The `\framebox` command is like `\makebox` (see previous section), except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates.

The `\framebox` command produces a rule of thickness `\fboxrule`, and leaves a space `\fboxsep` between the rule and the contents of the box.

#### 8.19.4 `\dashbox`

Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis:

    \dashbox{dlen}(rwidth,rheight)[pos]{text}

`\dashbox` creates a dashed rectangle around text in a `picture` environment. Dashes are dlen units long, and the rectangle has overall width rwidth and height rheight. The text is positioned at optional pos.

A dashed box looks best when the rwidth and rheight are multiples of the dlen.

#### 8.19.5 `\frame`

Synopsis:

    \frame{text}

The `\frame` command puts a rectangular frame around text. The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra space is put between the frame and the object.

#### 8.19.6 `\line`

Synopsis:

    \line(xslope,yslope){length}

The `\line` command draws a line with the given length and slope xslope/yslope.

Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with slope = x/y, where x and y have integer values from -6 through 6. For lines of any slope, and plenty of other shapes, see `pict2e` and many other packages on CTAN.

#### 8.19.7 `\linethickness`

The `\linethickness{dim}` command declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be dim, which must be a positive length.

`\linethickness` does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, circles, or the quarter circles drawn by `\oval`.

#### 8.19.8 `\thicklines`

The `\thicklines` command is an alternate line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. \linethickness and \thinlines.

#### 8.19.9 `\thinlines`

The `\thinlines` command is the default line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. \linethickness and \thicklines.

#### 8.19.10 `\multiput`

Synopsis:

    \multiput(x,y)(delta_x,delta_y){n}{obj}

The `\multiput` command copies the object obj in a regular pattern across a picture. obj is first placed at position (x,y), then at (x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on, n times.

#### 8.19.11 `\oval`

Synopsis:

    \oval(width,height)[portion]

The `\oval` command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The optional argument portion allows you to produce only half of the oval via the following:

`t`

  selects the top half;

`b`

  selects the bottom half;

`r`

  selects the right half;

`l`

  selects the left half.

It is also possible to produce only one quarter of the oval by setting portion to `tr`, `br`, `bl`, or `tl`.

The “corners” of the oval are made with quarter circles with a maximum radius of 20pt, so large “ovals” will look more like boxes with rounded corners.

#### 8.19.12 `\put`

Synopsis:

    \put(xcoord,ycoord){ ... }

The `\put` command places the material specified by the (mandatory) argument in braces at the given coordinate, (xcoord,ycoord).

#### 8.19.13 `\shortstack`

Synopsis:

    \shortstack[position]{...\\...\\...}

The `\shortstack` command produces a stack of objects. The valid positions are:

`r`

  Move the objects to the right of the stack.

`l`

  Move the objects to the left of the stack

`c`

  Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default)

Objects are separated with `\\`.

#### 8.19.14 `\vector`

Synopsis:

    \vector(xslope,yslope){length}

The `\vector` command draws a line with an arrow of the specified length and slope. The xslope and yslope values must lie between -4 and +4, inclusive.

### 8.20 `quotation` and `quote`

Synopsis:

    \begin{quotation}
    text
    \end{quotation}

or

    \begin{quote}
    text
    \end{quote}

Include a quotation.

In both environments, margins are indented on both sides by `\leftmargin` and the text is justified at both. As with the main text, leaving a blank line produces a new paragraph.

To compare the two: in the `quotation` environment, paragraphs are indented by 1.5em and the space between paragraphs is small, `0pt plus 1pt`. In the `quote` environment, paragraphs are not indented and there is vertical space between paragraphs (it is the rubber length `\parsep`). Thus, the `quotation` environment may be more suitable for documents where new paragraphs are marked by an indent rather than by a vertical separation. In addition, `quote` may be more suitable for a short quotation or a sequence of short quotations.

    \begin{quotation}
    \it Four score and seven years ago
      .. shall not perish from the earth.
    \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---Abraham Lincoln
    \end{quotation}

### 8.21 `tabbing`

Synopsis:

    \begin{tabbing}
    row1col1 \= row1col2 \= row1col3 \= row1col4 \\
    row2col1 \>                \> row2col3 \\
    ...
    \end{tabbing}

The `tabbing` environment provides a way to align text in columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was done on an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where the width of each column is constant and known in advance.

This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the `tabular` environment.

The following commands can be used inside a `tabbing` environment:

`\\ (tabbing)`

  End a line.

`\= (tabbing)`

  Sets a tab stop at the current position.

`\> (tabbing)`

  Advances to the next tab stop.

`\<`

  Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line.

`\+`

  Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary.

`\-`

  Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary.

`\' (tabbing)`

  Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, i.e., everything from the most recent `\>`, `\<`, `\'`, `\\`, or `\kill` command, to the right of the previous column, flush against the current column’s tab stop.

`\` (tabbing)`

  Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab stop 0. However, it can’t move text to the right of the last column because there’s no tab stop there. The `\`` command moves all the text that follows it, up to the `\\` or `\end{tabbing}` command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing environment. There must be no `\>` or `\'` command between the `\`` and the command that ends the line.

`\a (tabbing)`

  In a `tabbing` environment, the commands `\=`, `\'` and `\`` do not produce accents as usual (see Accents). Instead, the commands `\a=`, `\a'` and `\a`` are used.

`\kill`

  Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like `\\` except that it throws away the current line instead of producing output for it. The effect of any `\=`, `\+` or `\-` commands in that line remain in effect.

`\poptabs`

  Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last `\pushtabs`.

`\pushtabs`

  Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing tab stop positions in the middle of a `tabbing` environment.

`\tabbingsep`

  Distance to left of tab stop moved by `\'`.

This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format:

    \begin{tabbing}
    function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
             \> begin \= \+ \\
                   \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\
                            fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
                      else \+ \\
                            fact := 1; \-\- \\
                end;\\
    \end{tabbing}

### 8.22 `table`

Synopsis:

    \begin{table}[placement]
      table body
    \caption[loftitle]{title}
    \label{label}
    \end{table}

A class of floats (see Floats). Because they cannot be split across pages, they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but instead are “floated” to a convenient place, such as the top of a following page.

For the possible values of placement and their effect on the float placement algorithm, see Floats.

The table body is typeset in a `parbox` of width `\textwidth` and so it can contain text, commands, etc.

The label is optional; it is used for cross-references (see Cross references). The optional `\caption` command specifies caption text for the table. By default it is numbered. If lottitle is present, it is used in the list of tables instead of title (see Tables of contents).

In this example the table and caption will float to the bottom of a page, unless it is pushed to a float page at the end.

    \begin{table}[b]
      \centering
      \begin{tabular}{r|p{2in}} \hline
        One &The loneliest number \\
        Two &Can be as sad as one.
             It's the loneliest number since the number one.
      \end{tabular}
      \caption{Cardinal virtues}
      \label{tab:CardinalVirtues}
    \end{table}

### 8.23 `tabular`

Synopsis:

    \begin{tabular}[pos]{cols}
    column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\
      ...
    \end{tabular}

or

    \begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols}
    column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\
      ...
    \end{tabular*}

These environments produce a table, a box consisting of a sequence of horizontal rows. Each row consists of items that are aligned vertically in columns. This illustrates many of the features.

    \begin{tabular}{l|l}
      \textit{Player name}  &\textit{Career home runs}  \\
      \hline
      Hank Aaron  &755 \\
      Babe Ruth   &714
    \end{tabular}

The vertical format of two left-aligned columns, with a vertical bar between them, is specified in `tabular`’s argument `{l|l}`. Columns are separated with an ampersand `&`. A horizontal rule between two rows is created with `\hline`. The end of each row is marked with a double backslash `\\`. This `\\` is optional after the last row unless an `\hline` command follows, to put a rule below the table.

The required and optional arguments to `tabular` consist of:

width

  Required for `tabular*`, not allowed for `tabular`. Specifies the width of the `tabular*` environment. The space between columns should be rubber, as with `@{\extracolsep{\fill}}`, to allow the table to stretch or shrink to make the specified width, or else you are likely to get the `Underfull \hbox (badness 10000) in alignment ..` warning.

pos

  Optional. Specifies the table’s vertical position. The default is to align the table so its vertical center matches the baseline of the surrounding text. There are two other possible alignments: `t` aligns the table so its top row matches the baseline of the surrounding text, and `b` aligns on the bottom row.

  This only has an effect if there is other text. In the common case of a `tabular` alone in a `center` environment this option makes no difference.

cols

  Required. Specifies the formatting of columns. It consists of a sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the types of column and intercolumn material.

  `l`

    A column of left-aligned items.

  `r`

    A column of right-aligned items.

  `c`

    A column of centered items.

  `|`

    A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment.

  `@{text or space}`

    This inserts text or space at this location in every row. The text or space material is typeset in LR mode. This text is fragile (see \protect).

    This specifier is optional: unless you put in your own @-expression then LaTeX’s book, article, and report classes will put on either side of each column a space of length `\tabcolsep`, which by default is ‘`6pt`’. That is, by default adjacent columns are separated by 12pt (so `\tabcolsep` is misleadingly-named since it is not the separation between tabular columns). Also by default a space of 6pt comes before the first column as well as after the final column, unless you put a `@{..}` or `|` there.

    If you override the default and use an @-expression then you must insert any desired space yourself, as in `@{\hspace{1em}}`.

    An empty expression `@{}` will eliminate the space, including the space at the start or end, as in the example below where the tabular lines need to lie on the left margin.

        \begin{flushleft}
          \begin{tabular}{@{}l}
            ..
          \end{tabular}
        \end{flushleft}

    This example shows text, a decimal point, between the columns, arranged so the numbers in the table are aligned on that decimal point.

        \begin{tabular}{r@{$.$}l}
          $3$ &$14$  \\
          $9$ &$80665$
        \end{tabular}

    An `\extracolsep{wd}` command in an @-expression causes an extra space of width wd to appear to the left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another `\extracolsep` command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An `\extracolsep` command can be used only in an @-expression in the `cols` argument. Below, LaTeX inserts the right amount of intercolumn space to make the entire table 4 inches wide.

        \begin{center}
          \begin{tabular*}{4in}{l@{\ \ldots\extracolsep{\fill}}l}
            Seven times down, eight times up
            &such is life!
          \end{tabular*}
        \end{center}

    To insert commands that are automatically executed before a given column, load the `array` package and use the `>{...}` specifier.

  `p{wd}`

    Each item in the column is typeset in a parbox of width wd.

    Note that a line break double backslash `\\` may not appear in the item, except inside an environment like `minipage`, `array`, or `tabular`, or inside an explicit `\parbox`, or in the scope of a `\centering`, `\raggedright`, or `\raggedleft` declaration (when used in a `p`-column element these declarations must appear inside braces, as with `{\centering .. \\ ..}`). Otherwise LaTeX will misinterpret the double backslash as ending the row.

  `*{num}{cols}`

    Equivalent to num copies of cols, where num is a positive integer and cols is a list of specifiers. Thus `\begin{tabular}{|*{3}{l|r}|}` is equivalent to `\begin{tabular}{|l|rl|rl|r|}`. Note that cols may contain another `*-expression`.

Parameters that control formatting:

`\arrayrulewidth`

  A length that is the thickness of the rule created by `|`, `\hline`, and `\vline` in the `tabular` and `array` environments. The default is ‘`.4pt`’. Change it as in `\setlength{\arrayrulewidth}{0.8pt}`.

`\arraystretch`

  A factor by which the spacing between rows in the `tabular` and `array` environments is multiplied. The default is ‘`1`’, for no scaling. Change it as `\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.2}`.

`\doublerulesep`

  A length that is the distance between the vertical rules produced by the `||` specifier. The default is ‘`2pt`’.

`\tabcolsep`

  A length that is half of the space between columns. The default is ‘`6pt`’. Change it with `\setlength`.

The following commands can be used inside the body of a `tabular` environment, the first two inside an entry and the second two between lines:

#### 8.23.1 `\multicolumn`

Synopsis:

    \multicolumn{numcols}{cols}{text}

Make an `array` or `tabular` entry that spans several columns. The first argument numcols gives the number of columns to span. The second argument cols specifies the formatting of the entry, with `c` for centered, `l` for flush left, or `r` for flush right. The third argument text gives the contents of that entry.

In this example, in the first row, the second and third columns are spanned by the single heading ‘`Name`’.

    \begin{tabular}{lccl}
      \textit{ID}       &\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{Name}} &\textit{Age} \\ \hline % row one
      978-0-393-03701-2 &O'Brian &Patrick                  &55           \\        % row two
        ..
    \end{tabular}

What counts as a column is: the column format specifier for the `array` or `tabular` environment is broken into parts, where each part (except the first) begins with `l`, `c`, `r`, or `p`. So from `\begin{tabular}{|r|ccp{1.5in}|}` the parts are `|r|`, `c`, `c`, and `p{1.5in}|`.

The cols argument overrides the `array` or `tabular` environment’s intercolumn area default adjoining this multicolumn entry. To affect that area, this argument can contain vertical bars `|` indicating the placement of vertical rules, and `@{..}` expressions. Thus if cols is ‘`|c|`’ then this multicolumn entry will be centered and a vertical rule will come in the intercolumn area before it and after it. This table details the exact behavior.

    \begin{tabular}{|cc|c|c|}
      \multicolumn{1}{r}{w}       % entry one
        &\multicolumn{1}{|r|}{x}  % entry two
        &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{y}   % entry three
        &z                        % entry four
    \end{tabular}

Before the first entry the output will not have a vertical rule because the `\multicolumn` has the cols specifier ‘`r`’ with no initial vertical bar. Between entry one and entry two there will be a vertical rule; although the first cols does not have an ending vertical bar, the second cols does have a starting one. Between entry two and entry three there is a single vertical rule; despite that the cols in both of the surrounding `multicolumn`’s call for a vertical rule, you only get one rule. Between entry three and entry four there is no vertical rule; the default calls for one but the cols in the entry three `\multicolumn` leaves it out, and that takes precedence. Finally, following entry four there is a vertical rule because of the default.

The number of spanned columns numcols can be 1. Besides giving the ability to change the horizontal alignment, this also is useful to override for one row the `tabular` definition’s default intercolumn area specification, including the placement of vertical rules.

In the example below, in the `tabular` definition the first column is specified to default to left justified but in the first row the entry is centered with `\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}`. Also in the first row, the second and third columns are spanned by a single entry with `\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}}`, overriding the specification to center those two columns on the page range en-dash.

    \begin{tabular}{l|r@{--}l}
      \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}
        &multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}} \\ \hline
      Baroque          &1600           &1760         \\
      Classical        &1730           &1820         \\
      Romantic         &1780           &1910         \\
      Impressionistic  &1875           &1925
    \end{tabular}

Note that although the `tabular` specification by default puts a vertical rule between the first and second columns, because there is no vertical bar in the cols of either of the first row’s `\multicolumn` commands, no rule appears in the first row.

#### 8.23.2 `\vline`

Draw a vertical line in a `tabular` or `array` environment extending the full height and depth of an entry’s row. Can also be used in an @-expression, although its synonym vertical bar `|` is more common. This command is rarely used; typically a table’s vertical lines are specified in `tabular`’s cols argument and overriden as needed with `\multicolumn`.

This example illustrates some pitfalls. In the first line’s second entry the `\hfill` moves the `\vline` to the left edge of the cell. But that is different than putting it halfway between the two columns, so in that row between the first and second columns there are two vertical rules, with the one from the `{c|cc}` specifier coming before the one produced by the `\vline\hfill`. In contrast, the first line’s third entry shows the usual way to put a vertical bar between two columns. In the second line, the `ghi` is the widest entry in its column so in the `\vline\hfill` the `\hfill` has no effect and the vertical line in that entry appears immediately next to the `g`, with no whitespace.

    \begin{tabular}{c|cc}
      x   &\vline\hfill y   &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{z} \\
      abc &def &\vline\hfill ghi
    \end{tabular}

#### 8.23.3 `\cline`

Synopsis:

    \cline{i-j}

Draw a horizontal rule in an `array` or `tabular` environment beginning in column i and ending in column j. The dash `-` must appear in the mandatory argument. To span a single column use the number twice.

This example puts two horizontal lines between the first and second rows, one line in the first column only, and the other spanning the third and fourth columns. The two lines are side-by-side, at the same height.

    \begin{tabular}{llrr}
      a &b &c &d \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{3-4}
      e &f &g &h
    \end{tabular}

#### 8.23.4 `\hline`

Draws a horizontal line the width of the enclosing `tabular` or `array` environment. It’s most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of a table.

In this example the top of the table has two horizontal rules, one above the other, that span both columns. The bottom of the table has a single rule spanning both columns. Because of the `\hline`, the `tabular` second row’s line ending double backslash `\\` is required.

    \begin{tabular}{ll} \hline\hline
      Baseball   &Red Sox  \\
      Basketball &Celtics  \\ \hline
    \end{tabular}

### 8.24 `thebibliography`

Synopsis:

    \begin{thebibliography}{widest-label}
    \bibitem[label]{cite_key}
    ...
    \end{thebibliography}

The `thebibliography` environment produces a bibliography or reference list.

In the `article` class, this reference list is labelled “References”; in the `report` class, it is labelled “Bibliography”. You can change the label (in the standard classes) by redefining the command `\refname`. For instance, this eliminates it entirely:

    \renewcommand{\refname}{}

The mandatory widest-label argument is text that, when typeset, is as wide as the widest item label produced by the `\bibitem` commands. It is typically given as `9` for bibliographies with less than 10 references, `99` for ones with less than 100, etc.

#### 8.24.1 `\bibitem`

Synopsis:

    \bibitem[label]{cite_key}

The `\bibitem` command generates an entry labelled by label. If the label argument is missing, a number is automatically generated using the `enumi` counter. The cite_key is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols not containing a comma.

This command writes an entry to the `.aux` file containing the item’s cite_key and label. When the `.aux` file is read by the `\begin{document}` command, the item’s `label` is associated with `cite_key`, causing references to cite_key with a `\cite` command (see next section) to produce the associated label.

#### 8.24.2 `\cite`

Synopsis:

    \cite[subcite]{keys}

The keys argument is a list of one or more citation keys, separated by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to the references associated with keys by entries in the `.aux` file.

The text of the optional subcite argument appears after the citation. For example, `\cite[p.~314]{knuth}` might produce ‘[Knuth, p. 314]’.

#### 8.24.3 `\nocite`

`\nocite{keys}`

The `\nocite` command produces no text, but writes keys, which is a list of one or more citation keys, to the `.aux` file.

#### 8.24.4 Using BibTeX

If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don’t use the `thebibliography` environment (see thebibliography). Instead, you include the lines

    \bibliographystyle{bibstyle}
    \bibliography{bibfile1,bibfile2}

The `\bibliographystyle` command does not produce any output of its own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will be produced: bibstyle refers to a file bibstyle`.bst`, which defines how your citations will look. The standard style names distributed with BibTeX are:

`alpha`

  Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of publication.

`plain`

  Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric.

`unsrt`

  Like `plain`, but entries are in order of citation.

`abbrv`

  Like `plain`, but more compact labels.

In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to the demands of various publications. See http://mirror.ctan.org/biblio/bibtex/contrib.

The `\bibliography` command is what actually produces the bibliography. The argument to `\bibliography` refers to files named `bibfile.bib`, which should contain your database in BibTeX format. Only the entries referred to via `\cite` and `\nocite` will be listed in the bibliography.

### 8.25 `theorem`

Synopsis:

    \begin{theorem}
    theorem-text
    \end{theorem}

The `theorem` environment produces “Theorem n” in boldface followed by theorem-text, where the numbering possibilities for n are described under `\newtheorem` (see \newtheorem).

### 8.26 `titlepage`

Synopsis:

    \begin{titlepage}
    text
    \end{titlepage}

The `titlepage` environment creates a title page, i.e., a page with no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following page to be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to you. The `\today` command may be useful on title pages (see \today).

You can use the `\maketitle` command (see \maketitle) to produce a standard title page without a `titlepage` environment.

### 8.27 `verbatim`

Synopsis:

    \begin{verbatim}
    literal-text
    \end{verbatim}

The `verbatim` environment is a paragraph-making environment in which LaTeX produces exactly what you type in; for instance the `\` character produces a printed ‘`\`’. It turns LaTeX into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that they would on a typewriter.

The `verbatim` uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (`\tt`).

#### 8.27.1 `\verb`

Synopsis:

    \verbcharliteral-textchar
    \verb*charliteral-textchar

The `\verb` command typesets literal-text as it is input, including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter (`\tt`) font. No spaces are allowed between `\verb` or `\verb*` and the delimiter char, which begins and ends the verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear in literal-text.

The `*`-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a “visible space” character.

### 8.28 `verse`

Synopsis:

    \begin{verse}
    line1 \\
    line2 \\
    ...
    \end{verse}

The `verse` environment is designed for poetry, though you may find other uses for it.

The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each stanza with `\\`, and use one or more blank lines to separate the stanzas.

## 9 Line breaking

The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines (and these lines must be broken into pages).

LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking in the text body for you but in some environments you manually force line breaks.

### 9.1 `\\`

Synopsis:

    \\[morespace]

or

    \\*[morespace]

Start a new line. The optional argument morespace specifies extra vertical space to be insert before the next line. This can be a negative length. The text before the break is set at its normal length, that is, it is not stretched to fill out the line width.

Explicit line breaks in the text body are unusual in LaTeX. In particular, to start a new paragraph instead leave a blank line. This command is mostly used outside of the main flow of text such as in a `tabular` or `array` environment.

Under ordinary circumstances (e.g., outside of a `p{..}` column in a `tabular` environment) the `\newline` command is a synonym for `\\` (see \newline).

In addition to starting a new line, the starred form `\\*` tells LaTeX not to start a new page between the two lines, by issuing a `\nobreak`.

    \title{My story: \\[0.25in]
           a tale of woe}

### 9.2 `\obeycr` & `\restorecr`

The `\obeycr` command makes a return in the input file (‘`^^M`’, internally) the same as `\\` (followed by `\relax`). So each new line in the input will also be a new line in the output.

`\restorecr` restores normal line-breaking behavior.

### 9.3 `\newline`

In ordinary text this is equivalent to double-backslash (see \\); it breaks a line, with no stretching of the text before it.

Inside a `tabular` or `array` environment, in a column with a specifier producing a paragraph box, like typically `p{..}`, `\newline` will insert a line break inside of the column, that is, it does not break the entire row. To break the entire row use `\\` or its equivalent `\tabularnewline`.

This will print ‘`Name:`’ and ‘`Address:`’ as two lines in a single cell of the table.

    \begin{tabular}{p{1in}{\hspace{2in}}p{1in}}
      Name: \newline Address: &Date: \\ \hline
    \end{tabular}

The ‘`Date:`’ will be baseline-aligned with ‘`Name:`’.

### 9.4 `\-` (discretionary hyphen)

The `\-` command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that point. LaTeX is pretty good at hyphenating, and usually finds most of the correct hyphenation points, while almost never using an incorrect one. The `\-` command is used for the exceptional cases.

When you insert `\-` commands in a word, the word will only be hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points that LaTeX might otherwise have chosen.

### 9.5 `\fussy`

The declaration `\fussy` (which is the default) makes TeX picky about line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box.

This command cancels the effect of a previous `\sloppy` command (see \sloppy.

### 9.6 `\sloppy`

The declaration `\sloppy` makes TeX less fussy about line breaking. This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose interword spacing.

Lasts until a `\fussy` command is issued (see \fussy).

### 9.7 `\hyphenation`

Synopsis:

    \hyphenation{word-one word-two}

The `\hyphenation` command declares allowed hyphenation points with a `-` character in the given words. The words are separated by spaces. TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no inflections are tried. Multiple `\hyphenation` commands accumulate. Some examples (the default TeX hyphenation patterns misses the hyphenations in these words):

    \hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases}

### 9.8 `\linebreak` & `\nolinebreak`

Synopses:

    \linebreak[priority]
    \nolinebreak[priority]

By default, the `\linebreak` (`\nolinebreak`) command forces (prevents) a line break at the current position. For `\linebreak`, the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it extends to the right margin as usual.

With the optional argument priority, you can convert the command from a demand to a request. The priority must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request.

## 10 Page breaking

LaTeX starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically, but sometimes you may want to influence the breaks.

### 10.1 `\cleardoublepage`

The `\cleardoublepage` command ends the current page and causes all the pending floating figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand (odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary.

### 10.2 `\clearpage`

The `\clearpage` command ends the current page and causes all the pending floating figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.

### 10.3 `\newpage`

The `\newpage` command ends the current page, but does not clear floats (see \clearpage).

### 10.4 `\enlargethispage`

`\enlargethispage{size}`

`\enlargethispage*{size}`

Enlarge the `\textheight` for the current page by the specified amount; e.g., `\enlargethispage{\baselineskip}` will allow one additional line.

The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit `\pagebreak`.

### 10.5 `\pagebreak` & `\nopagebreak`

Synopses:

    \pagebreak[priority]
    \nopagebreak[priority]

By default, the `\pagebreak` (`\nopagebreak`) command forces (prevents) a page break at the current position. With `\pagebreak`, the vertical space on the page is stretched out where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin.

With the optional argument priority, you can convert the `\pagebreak` command from a demand to a request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.

## 11 Footnotes

Place a numbered footnote at the bottom of the current page, as here.

    Noël Coward quipped that having to read a footnote is like having
    to go downstairs to answer the door, while in the midst of making
    love.\footnote{I wouldn't know, I don't read footnotes.}

You can place multiple footnotes on a page. If the text becomes too long it will flow to the next page.

You can also produce footnotes by combining the `\footnotemark` and the `\footnotetext` commands, which is useful in special circumstances.

To make bibliographic references come out as footnotes you need to include a bibliographic style with that behavior.

### 11.1 `\footnote`

Synopsis:

    \footnote[number]{text}

Place a numbered footnote text at the bottom of the current page.

    There are over a thousand footnotes in Gibbon's
    \textit{Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire}.\footnote{After
    reading an early version with endnotes David Hume complained,
    ``One is also plagued with his Notes, according to the present Method
    of printing the Book'' and suggested that they ``only to be printed
    at the Margin or the Bottom of the Page.''}

The optional argument number allows you to specify the footnote number. If you use this option then the footnote number counter is not incremented, and if you do not use it then the counter is incremented.

Change how LaTeX shows the footnote counter with something like `\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}`, which uses a sequence of symbols (see \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol). To make this change global put that in the preamble. If you make the change local then you may want to reset the counter with `\setcounter{footnote}{0}`. By default LaTeX uses arabic numbers.

LaTeX’s default puts many restrictions on where you can use a `\footnote`; for instance, you cannot use it in an argument to a sectioning command such as `\chapter` (it can only be used in outer paragraph mode). There are some workarounds; see following sections.

In a `minipage` environment the `\footnote` command uses the `mpfootnote` counter instead of the `footnote` counter, so they are numbered independently. They are shown at the bottom of the environment, not at the bottom of the page. And by default they are shown alphabetically. See minipage.

### 11.2 `\footnotemark`

Synopsis, one of:

    \footnotemark
    \footnotemark[number]

Put the current footnote number in the text. (See \footnotetext for giving the text of the footnote separately.) The version with the optional argument number uses that number to determine the mark printed. This command can be used in inner paragraph mode.

This example gives the same institutional affiliation to both the first and third authors (`\thanks` is a version of `footnote`).

    \title{A Treatise on the Binomial Theorem}
    \author{J Moriarty\thanks{University of Leeds}
      \and A C Doyle\thanks{Durham University}
      \and S Holmes\footnotemark[1]}
    \begin{document}
    \maketitle

If you use `\footnotemark` without the optional argument then it increments the footnote counter but if you use the optional number then it does not. This produces several consecutive footnote markers referring to the same footnote.

    The first theorem\footnote{Due to Gauss.}
    and the second theorem\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]
    and the third theorem.\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]

### 11.3 `\footnotetext`

Synopsis, one of:

    \footnotetext{text}
    \footnotetext[number]{text}

Place text at the bottom of the page as a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the `\footnotemark` command. The optional argument number changes the displayed footnote number. The `\footnotetext` command must appear in outer paragraph mode.

### 11.4 Footnotes in a table

Inside a `table` environment the `\footnote` command does not work. For instance, if the code below appears on its own then the footnote simply disappears; there is a footnote mark in the table cell but nothing is set at the bottom of the page.

    \begin{center}
         \begin{tabular}{l|l}
         \textsc{Ship}  &\textsc{Book} \\ \hline
         \textit{HMS Sophie}     &Master and Commander  \\
         \textit{HMS Polychrest} &Post Captain  \\
         \textit{HMS Lively}     &Post Captain \\
         \textit{HMS Surprise}   &A number of books\footnote{Starting with HMS Surprise.}
         \end{tabular}
    \end{center}

The solution is to surround the `tabular` environment with a `minipage` environment, as here (see minipage).

    \begin{center}
      \begin{minipage}{.5\textwidth}
        .. tabular material ..
      \end{minipage}
    \end{center}

The same technique will work inside a floating `table` environment (see table). To get the footnote at the bottom of the page use the `tablefootnote` package, as illustrated in this example. If you put `\usepackage{tablefootnote}` in the preamble and use the code shown then the footnote appears at the bottom and is numbered in sequence with other footnotes.

    \begin{table}
      \centering
         \begin{tabular}{l|l}
         \textsc{Date}  &\textsc{Campaign} \\ \hline
         1862           &Fort Donelson \\
         1863           &Vicksburg     \\
         1865           &Army of Northern Virginia\footnote{Ending the war.}
         \end{tabular}
        \caption{Forces captured by US Grant}
    \end{table}

### 11.5 Footnotes in section headings

Putting a footnote in a section heading

    \section{Full sets\protect\footnote{This material is due to R~Jones.}}

causes the footnote to appear both at the bottom of the page where the section starts and at the bottom of the table of contents page. To have it not appear on the table of contents use the package `footmisc` with the `stable` option.

    \usepackage[stable]{footmisc}
     ..
    \begin{document}
     ..
    \section{Full sets\footnote{This material is due to R~Jones.}}

Note that the `\protect` is gone; putting it in causes the footnote to reappear on the table of contents.

### 11.6 Footnotes of footnotes

Particularly in the humanities, authors can have multiple classes of footnotes, including having footnotes of footnotes. The package `bigfoot` extends LaTeX’s default footnote mechanism in many ways, including allow these two, as in this example.

    \usepackage{bigfoot}
    \DeclareNewFootnote{Default}
    \DeclareNewFootnote{from}[alph]   % create class \footnotefrom{}
      ..
    \begin{document}
      ..
    The third theorem is a partial converse of the
    second.\footnotefrom{First noted in Wilson.\footnote{Second edition only.}}
     ..

### 11.7 Multiple references to footnotes

You can refer to a single footnote more than once. This example uses the package `cleverref`.

    \usepackage{cleveref}[2012/02/15]   % this version of package or later
    \crefformat{footnote}{#2\footnotemark[#1]#3}
      ..
    \begin{document}
      ..
    The theorem is from Evers.\footnote{\label{fn:TE}Tinker and Evers, 1994.}
    The corollary is from Chance.\footnote{Evers and Chance, 1990.}
    But the key lemma is from Tinker.\cref{fn:TE}
      ..

This solution will work with the package `hyperref`. See \footnotemark for a simpler solution in the common case of multiple authors with the same affiliation.

### 11.8 Footnote parameters

`\footnoterule`

  Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page’s footnotes. Default dimensions: `0.4pt` thick (or wide), and `0.4\columnwidth` long in the standard document classes (except `slides`, where it does not appear).

`\footnotesep`

  The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote. By default, this is set to the normal strut for `\footnotesize` fonts (see Font sizes), therefore there is no extra space between footnotes. This is ‘`6.65pt`’ for ‘`10pt`’, ‘`7.7pt`’ for ‘`11pt`’, and ‘`8.4pt`’ for ‘`12pt`’.

## 12 Definitions

LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds.

### 12.1 `\newcommand` & `\renewcommand`

`\newcommand` and `\renewcommand` define and redefine a command, respectively. Synopses:

      \newcommand{cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn}
      \newcommand*{cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn}
    \renewcommand{cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn}
    \renewcommand*{cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn}

The `*`-form of these two commands requires that the arguments not contain multiple paragraphs of text (not `\long`, in plain TeX terms).

cmd

  Required; the command name. It must begin with `\`. For `\newcommand`, it must not be already defined and must not begin with `\end`. For `\renewcommand`, it must already be defined.

nargs

  Optional; an integer from 0 to 9, specifying the number of arguments that the command will take. If this argument is not present, the default is for the command to have no arguments. When redefining a command, the new version can have a different number of arguments than the old version.

optargdefault

  Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of defined command \cmd is optional, with default value optargdefault (which may be the empty string). If this argument is not present then \cmd does not take an optional argument.

  That is, if \cmd is used with square brackets following, as in `\cmd[myval]`, then within defn `#1` expands myval. While if \cmd is called without square brackets following, then within defn the `#1` expands to the default optargdefault. In either case, any required arguments will be referred to starting with `#2`.

  Omitting `[myval]` in the call is different from having the square brackets with no contents, as in `[]`. The former results in `#1` expanding to optargdefault; the latter results in `#1` expanding to the empty string.

defn

  The text to be substituted for every occurrence of `cmd`; a construct of the form `#n` in defn is replaced by the text of the nth argument.

A command with no arguments that is followed in the source by a space will swallow that space. The solution is to type `{}` after the command and before the space.

A simple example of defining a new command: `\newcommand{\JH}{Jim Hef{}feron}` causes the abbreviation `\JH` to be replaced by the longer text.

Redefining a command is basically the same: `\renewcommand{\qedsymbol}{{\small QED}}`.

Here’s a command definition that uses arguments:

    \newcommand{\defreference}[1]{Definition~\ref{#1}}

Then, `\defreference{def:basis}` will expand to something like ‘`Definition~3.14`’.

An example with two arguments: `\newcommand{\nbym}[2]{#1\!\times\!#2}` is invoked as `\nbym{2}{k}`.

An example with optional arguments:

    \newcommand{\salutation}[1][Sir or Madam]{Dear #1:}

Then, `\salutation` gives ‘`Dear Sir or Madam:`’ while `\salutation[John]` gives ‘`Dear John:`’. And `\salutation[]` gives ‘`Dear :`’.

The braces around defn do not delimit the scope of the result of expanding defn. So `\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{\it #1}` is wrong since in the sentence

    The \shipname{Monitor} met the \shipname{Virginia}.

the words ‘`met the`’ will incorrectly be in italics. An extra pair of braces `\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{{\it #1}}` fixes it.

### 12.2 `\providecommand`

Defines a command, as long as no command of this name already exists. Synopses:

    \providecommand{cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn}
    \providecommand*{cmd}[nargs][optargdefault]{defn}

If no command of this name already exists then this has the same effect as `\newcommand` (see \newcommand & \renewcommand). If a command of this name already exists then this definition does nothing. This is particularly useful in a style file, or other file that may be loaded more than once.

### 12.3 `\newcounter`: Allocating a counter

Synopsis:

    \newcounter{countername}[supercounter]

The `\newcounter` command globally defines a new counter named countername. The name consists of letters only and does not begin with a backslash (‘`\`’). The name must not already be used by another counter. The new counter is initialized to zero.

If the optional argument `[supercounter]` appears, then countername will be numbered within, or subsidiary to, the existing counter supercounter. For example, ordinarily `subsection` is numbered within `section`. Any time supercounter is incremented with `\stepcounter` (see \stepcounter) or `\refstepcounter` (see \refstepcounter) then countername is reset to zero.

See Counters, for more information about counters.

### 12.4 `\newlength`: Allocating a length

Allocate a new length register. Synopsis:

    \newlength{\arg}

This command takes one required argument, which must begin with a backslash (‘`\`’). It creates a new length register named `\arg`, which is a place to hold (rubber) lengths such as `1in plus.2in minus.1in` (what plain TeX calls a `skip` register). The register gets an initial value of zero. The control sequence `\arg` must not already be defined.

See Lengths, for more about lengths.

### 12.5 `\newsavebox`: Allocating a box

Allocate a “bin” for holding a box. Synopsis:

    \newsavebox{\cmd}

Defines `\cmd` to refer to a new bin for storing boxes. Such a box is for holding typeset material, to use multiple times (see Boxes) or to measure or manipulate. The name `\cmd` must start with a backslash (‘`\`’), and must not be already defined.

The allocation of a box is global. This command is fragile (see \protect).

### 12.6 `\newenvironment` & `\renewenvironment`

These commands define or redefine an environment env, that is, `\begin{env} … \end{env}`. Synopses:

      \newenvironment{env}[nargs][optargdefault]{begdefn}{enddefn}
      \newenvironment*{env}[nargs][optargdefault]{begdefn}{enddefn}
    \renewenvironment{env}[nargs][optargdefault]{begdefn}{enddefn}
    \renewenvironment*{env}[nargs][optargdefault]{begdefn}{enddefn}

Unlike `\newcommand` and `\renewcommand`, the `*`-forms `\newenvironment*` and `\renewcommand*` have the same effect as the forms with no `*`.

env

  Required; the environment name. It does not begin with backslash (`\`). It must not begin with the string `end`. For `\newenvironment`, the name env must not be the name of an already existing environment, and also the command `\env` must be undefined. For `\renewenvironment`, env must be the name of an existing environment.

nargs

  Optional; an integer from 0 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of that the environment will take. These arguments appear after the `\begin`, as in `\begin{env}{arg1}…{argn}`. If this argument is not present then the default is for the environment to have no arguments. When redefining an environment, the new version can have a different number of arguments than the old version.

optargdefault

  Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of the defined environment is optional, with default value optargdefault (which may be the empty string). If this argument is not present then the environment does not take an optional argument.

  That is, when `[optargdefault]` is present in the environment definition, if `\begin{env}` is used with square brackets following, as in `\begin{env}[myval]`, then within the environment `#1` expands myval. If `\begin{env}` is called without square brackets following, then within the environment the `#1` expands to the default optargdefault. In either case, any required arguments will be referred to starting with `#2`.

  Omitting `[myval]` in the call is different from having the square brackets with no contents, as in `[]`. The former results in `#1` expanding to optargdefault; the latter results in `#1` expanding to the empty string.

begdefn

  Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of `\begin{env}`; a construct of the form `#n` in begdef is replaced by the text of the nth argument.

enddefn

  Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of `\end{env}`. Note that it may not contain any argument parameters, so `#n` cannot be used here.

The environment env delimits the scope of the result of expanding begdefn and enddefn. Thus, in the first example below, the effect of the `\small` is limited to the quote and does not extend to material following the environment.

This example gives an environment like LaTeX’s `quotation` except that it will be set in smaller type.

    \newenvironment{smallquote}{%
      \small\begin{quotation}
    }{%
      \end{quotation}
    }

This shows the use of arguments; it gives a quotation environment that cites the author.

    \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{%
      \begin{quotation}
      \noindent\textit{#1}:
    }{%
      \end{quotation}
    }

The author’s name is optional, and defaults to Shakespeare. In the document, use the environment as here:

    \begin{citequote}[Lincoln]
      ..
    \end{citequote}

The final example shows how to save the value of an argument to use in enddefn.

    \newsavebox{\quoteauthor}
    \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{%
      \sbox\quoteauthor{#1}%
      \begin{quotation}
    }{%
      \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---\usebox{\quoteauthor}
      \end{quotation}
    }

### 12.7 `\newtheorem`

Define a new theorem-like environment. Synopses:

    \newtheorem{name}{title}[numbered_within]
    \newtheorem{name}[numbered_like]{title}

Both create a theorem-like environment name. Using the first form,

    \newtheorem{name}{title}[numbered_within]

with the optional argument after the second required argument, creates an environment whose counter is subordinate to the existing counter numbered_within: it will be reset when numbered_within is reset).

Using the second form,

    \newtheorem{name}[numbered_like]{title}

with the optional argument between the two required arguments, will create an environment whose counter will share the previously defined counter numbered_like.

You can specify one of numbered_within and numbered_like, or neither, but not both.

This command creates a counter named name. In addition, unless the optional argument numbered_like is used, the current `\ref` value will be that of `\thenumbered_within` (see \ref).

This declaration is global. It is fragile (see \protect).

Arguments:

name

  The name of the environment. It must not begin with a backslash (‘`\`’). It must not be the name of an existing environment; indeed, the command name `\name` must not already be defined as anything.

title

  The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the number. For example, ‘`Theorem`’.

numbered_within

  Optional; the name of an already defined counter, usually a sectional unit such as `chapter` or `section`. When the numbered_within counter is reset then the name environment’s counter will also be reset.

  If this optional argument is not used then the command `\thename` is set to `\arabic{name}`.

numbered_like

  Optional; the name of an already defined theorem-like environment. The new environment will be numbered in sequence with numbered_like.

Without any optional arguments the environments are numbered sequentially. This example has a declaration in the preamble that results in ‘`Definition 1`’ and ‘`Definition 2`’ in the output.

    \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}
    \begin{document}
    \section{...}
    \begin{defn}
      First def
    \end{defn}

    \section{...}
    \begin{defn}
      Second def
    \end{defn}

Because this example specifies the optional argument numbered_within to `\newtheorem` as `section`, the example, with the same document body, gives ‘`Definition 1.1`’ and ‘`Definition 2.1`’.

    \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section]
    \begin{document}
    \section{...}
    \begin{defn}
      First def
    \end{defn}

    \section{...}
    \begin{defn}
      Second def
    \end{defn}

In this example there are two declarations in the preamble, the second of which calls for the new `thm` environment to use the same counter as `defn`. It gives ‘`Definition 1.1`’, followed by ‘`Theorem 2.1`’ and ‘`Definition 2.2`’.

    \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section]
    \newtheorem{thm}[defn]{Theorem}
    \begin{document}
    \section{...}
    \begin{defn}
      First def
    \end{defn}

    \section{...}
    \begin{thm}
      First thm
    \end{thm}

    \begin{defn}
      Second def
    \end{defn}

### 12.8 `\newfont`: Define a new font (obsolete)

`\newfont`, now obsolete, defines a command that will switch fonts. Synopsis:

    \newfont{\cmd}{font description}

This defines a control sequence `\cmd` that will change the current font. LaTeX will look on your system for a file named `fontname.tfm`. The control sequence must must not already be defined. It must begin with a backslash (‘`\`’).

This command is obsolete. It is a low-level command for setting up an individual font. Today fonts are almost always defined in families (which allows you to, for example, associate a boldface with a roman) through the so-called “New Font Selection Scheme”, either by using `.fd` files or through the use of an engine that can access system fonts such as XeLaTeX (see TeX engines).

But since it is part of LaTeX, here is an explanation: the font description consists of a fontname and an optional at clause; this can have the form either `at dimen` or `scaled factor`, where a factor of ‘`1000`’ means no scaling. For LaTeX’s purposes, all this does is scale all the character and other font dimensions relative to the font’s design size, which is a value defined in the `.tfm` file.

This example defines two equivalent fonts and typesets a few characters in each:

    \newfont{\testfontat}{cmb10 at 11pt}
    \newfont{\testfontscaled}{cmb10 scaled 11pt}
    \testfontat abc
    \testfontscaled abc

### 12.9 `\protect`

All LaTeX commands are either fragile or robust. Footnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and many more, are fragile. A fragile command can break when it is used in the argument to certain commands. To prevent such commands from breaking they must be preceded by the command `\protect`.

For example, when LaTeX runs the `\section{section name}` command it writes the section name text to the `.aux` auxiliary file, moving it there for use elsewhere in the document such as in the table of contents. Any argument that is internally expanded by LaTeX without typesetting it directly is referred to as a moving argument. A command is fragile if it can expand during this process into invalid TeX code. Some examples of moving arguments are those that appear in the `\caption{..}` command (see figure), in the `\thanks{..}` command (see \maketitle), and in @-expressions in the `tabular` and `array` environments (see tabular).

If you get strange errors from commands used in moving arguments, try preceding it with `\protect`. Every fragile commands must be protected with their own `\protect`.

Although usually a `\protect` command doesn’t hurt, length commands are robust and should not be preceded by a `\protect` command. Nor can a `\protect` command be used in the argument to `\addtocounter` or `\setcounter` command.

In this example the `caption` command gives a mysterious error about an extra curly brace. Fix the problem by preceding each `\raisebox` command with `\protect`.

    \begin{figure}
      ..
      \caption{Company headquarters of A\raisebox{1pt}{B}\raisebox{-1pt}{C}}
    \end{figure}

In the next example the `\tableofcontents` command gives an error because the `\(..\)` in the section title expands to illegal TeX in the `.toc` file. You can solve this by changing `\(..\)` to `\protect\(..\protect\)`.

    \begin{document}
    \tableofcontents
     ..
    \section{Einstein's \( e=mc^2 \)}
     ..

## 13 Counters

Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The name of the counter is often the same as the name of the environment or command associated with the number, except with no backslash (`\`). Thus the `\chapter` command starts a chapter and the `chapter` counter keeps track of the chapter number. Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX’s standard document classes to control numbering.

    part            paragraph       figure          enumi
    chapter         subparagraph    table           enumii
    section         page            footnote        enumiii
    subsection      equation        mpfootnote      enumiv
    subsubsection

The `mpfootnote` counter is used by the `\footnote` command inside of a minipage (see minipage).

The `enumi` through `enumiv` counters are used in the `enumerate` environment, for up to four nested levels (see enumerate).

New counters are created with `\newcounter`. See \newcounter.

### 13.1 `\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol`: Printing counters

All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for instance, `\alph{enumi}`. Note that the counter name does not start with a backslash.

`\alph`

  prints counter using lowercase letters: ‘a’, ‘b’, ...

`\Alph`

  uses uppercase letters: ‘A’, ‘B’, ...

`\arabic`

  uses Arabic numbers: ‘1’, ‘2’, ...

`\roman`

  uses lowercase roman numerals: ‘i’, ‘ii’, ...

`\Roman`

  uses uppercase roman numerals: ‘I’, ‘II’, ...

`\fnsymbol`

  prints the value of counter in a specific sequence of nine symbols (conventionally used for labeling footnotes). The value of counter must be between 1 and 9, inclusive.

  Here are the symbols (as Unicode code points in ASCII output):

      asterisk(*) dagger(‡) ddagger(‡)
      section-sign(§) paragraph-sign(¶) parallel(∥)
      double-asterisk(**) double-dagger(††) double-ddagger(‡‡)

### 13.2 `\usecounter{counter}`

Synopsis:

    \usecounter{counter}

In the `list` environment, when used in the second argument, this command sets up counter to number the list items. It initializes counter to zero, and arranges that when `\item` is called without its optional argument then counter is incremented by `\refstepcounter`, making its value be the current `ref` value. This command is fragile (see \protect).

Put in the preamble, this makes a new list environment enumerated with testcounter:

    \newcounter{testcounter}
    \newenvironment{test}{%
      \begin{list}{}{%
        \usecounter{testcounter}
      }
    }{%
      \end{list}
    }

### 13.3 `\value{counter}`

Synopsis:

    \value{counter}

This command expands to the value of counter. It is often used in `\setcounter` or `\addtocounter`, but `\value` can be used anywhere that LaTeX expects a number. It must not be preceded by `\protect` (see \protect).

The `\value` command is not used for typesetting the value of the counter. See \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.

This example outputs ‘`Test counter is 6. Other counter is 5.`’.

    \newcounter{test} \setcounter{test}{5}
    \newcounter{other} \setcounter{other}{\value{test}}
    \addtocounter{test}{1}

    Test counter is \arabic{test}.
    Other counter is \arabic{other}.

This example inserts `\hspace{4\parindent}`.

    \setcounter{myctr}{3} \addtocounter{myctr}{1}
    \hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent}

### 13.4 `\setcounter{counter}{value}`

Synopsis:

    \setcounter{counter}{value}

The `\setcounter` command globally sets the value of counter to the value argument. Note that the counter name does not start with a backslash.

### 13.5 `\addtocounter{counter}{value}`

The `\addtocounter` command globally increments counter by the amount specified by the value argument, which may be negative.

### 13.6 `\refstepcounter{counter}`

The `\refstepcounter` command works in the same way as `\stepcounter` (see \stepcounter): it globally increments the value of counter by one and resets the value of any counter numbered within it. (For the definition of “counters numbered within”, see \newcounter.)

In addition, this command also defines the current `\ref` value to be the result of `\thecounter`.

While the counter value is set globally, the `\ref` value is set locally, i.e., inside the current group.

### 13.7 `\stepcounter{counter}`

The `\stepcounter` command globally adds one to counter and resets all counters numbered within it. (For the definition of “counters numbered within”, see \newcounter.)

### 13.8 `\day \month \year`: Predefined counters

LaTeX defines counters for the day of the month (`\day`, 1–31), month of the year (`\month`, 1–12), and year (`\year`, Common Era). When TeX starts up, they are set to the current values on the system where TeX is running. They are not updated as the job progresses.

The related command `\today` produces a string representing the current day (see \today).

## 14 Lengths

A length is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a length as an argument.

Lengths come in two types. A rigid length (what Plain TeX calls a dimen) such as `10pt` cannot contain a `plus` or `minus` component. A rubber length (what Plain TeX calls a skip) can contain those, as with `1cm plus0.05cm minus0.01cm`. These give the ability to stretch or shrink; the length in the prior sentence could appear in the output as long as 1.05 cm or as short as 0.99 cm, depending on what TeX’s typesetting algorithm finds optimum.

The `plus` or `minus` component of a rubber length can contain a fill component, as in `1in plus2fill`. This gives the length infinite stretchability or shrinkability, so that the length in the prior sentence can be set by TeX to any distance greater than or equal to 1 inch. TeX actually provides three infinite glue components `fil`, `fill`, and `filll`, such that the later ones overcome the earlier ones, but only the middle value is ordinarily used. See \hfill, See \vfill.

Multiplying an entire rubber length by a number turns it into a rigid length, so that after `\setlength{\ylength}{1in plus 0.2in}` and `\setlength{\zlength}{3\ylength}` then the value of `\zlength` is `3in`.

### 14.1 Units of length

TeX and LaTeX know about these units both inside and outside of math mode.

`pt`

  Point 1/72.27 inch. The conversion to metric units, to two decimal places, is 1point = 2.85mm = 28.45cm.

`pc`

  Pica, 12 pt

`in`

  Inch, 72.27 pt

`bp`

  Big point, 1/72 inch. This length is the definition of a point in PostScript and many desktop publishing systems.

`cm`

  Centimeter

`mm`

  Millimeter

`dd`

  Didot point, 1.07 pt

`cc`

  Cicero, 12 dd

`sp`

  Scaled point, 1/65536 pt

Two other lengths that are often used are values set by the designer of the font. The x-height of the current font ex, traditionally the height of the lower case letter x, is often used for vertical lengths. Similarly em, traditionally the width of the capital letter M, is often used for horizontal lengths (there is also `\enspace`, which is `0.5em`). Use of these can help make a definition work better across font changes. For example, a definition of the vertical space between list items given as `\setlength{\itemsep}{1ex plus 0.05ex minus 0.01ex}` is more likely to still be reasonable if the font is changed than a definition given in points.

In math mode, many definitions are expressed in terms of the math unit mu given by 1 em = 18 mu, where the em is taken from the current math symbols family. See Spacing in math mode.

### 14.2 `\setlength{\len}{value}`

The `\setlength` sets the value of \len to the value argument, which can be expressed in any units that LaTeX understands, i.e., inches (`in`), millimeters (`mm`), points (`pt`), big points (`bp`, etc.

### 14.3 `\addtolength{\len}{amount}`

The `\addtolength` command increments a “length command” \len by the amount specified in the amount argument, which may be negative.

### 14.4 `\settodepth`

`\settodepth{\gnat}{text}`

The `\settodepth` command sets the value of a `length` command equal to the depth of the `text` argument.

### 14.5 `\settoheight`

`\settoheight{\gnat}{text}`

The `\settoheight` command sets the value of a `length` command equal to the height of the `text` argument.

### 14.6 `\settowidth{\len}{text}`

The `\settowidth` command sets the value of the command \len to the width of the text argument.

### 14.7 Predefined lengths

`\width`

`\height`

`\depth`

`\totalheight`

These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands (see Boxes). They specify the natural width, etc., of the text in the box. `\totalheight` equals `\height` + `\depth`. To make a box with the text stretched to double the natural size, e.g., say

`\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}`

## 15 Making paragraphs

A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines—lines not containing even a `%`. A blank line should not appear where a new paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of a sectioning command.

### 15.1 `\indent`

`\indent` produces a horizontal space whose width equals to the `\parindent` length, the normal paragraph indentation. It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would otherwise be suppressed.

The default value for `\parindent` is `1em` in two-column mode, otherwise `15pt` for `10pt` documents, `17pt` for `11pt`, and `1.5em` for `12pt`.

### 15.2 `\noindent`

When used at the beginning of the paragraph, this command suppresses any paragraph indentation, as in this example.

    .. end of the prior paragraph.

    \noindent This paragraph is not indented.

It has no effect when used in the middle of a paragraph.

To eliminate paragraph indentation in an entire document, put `\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}` in the preamble.

### 15.3 `\parskip`

`\parskip` is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added before each paragraph. The default is `0pt plus1pt`.

### 15.4 Marginal notes

Synopsis:

    \marginpar[left]{right}

The `\marginpar` command creates a note in the margin. The first line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text where the `\marginpar` occurs.

When you only specify the mandatory argument right, the text will be placed

- in the right margin for one-sided layout (option `oneside`, see Document class options);
- in the outside margin for two-sided layout (option `twoside`, see Document class options);
- in the nearest margin for two-column layout (option `twocolumn`, see Document class options).

The command `\reversemarginpar` places subsequent marginal notes in the opposite (inside) margin. `\normalmarginpar` places them in the default position.

When you specify both arguments, left is used for the left margin, and right is used for the right margin.

The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable hyphenation there by beginning the node with `\hspace{0pt}`.

These parameters affect the formatting of the note:

`\marginparpush`

  Minimum vertical space between notes; default ‘`7pt`’ for ‘`12pt`’ documents, ‘`5pt`’ else.

`\marginparsep`

  Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default ‘`11pt`’ for ‘`10pt`’ documents, ‘`10pt`’ else.

`\marginparwidth`

  Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided ‘`10pt`’ document is ‘`90pt`’, ‘`83pt`’ for ‘`11pt`’, and ‘`68pt`’ for ‘`12pt`’; ‘`17pt`’ more in each case for a two-sided document. In two column mode, the default is ‘`48pt`’.

The standard LaTeX routine for marginal notes does not prevent notes from falling off the bottom of the page.

## 16 Math formulas

There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode:

`math`

  For formulas that appear right in the text.

`displaymath`

  For formulas that appear on their own line.

`equation`

  The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation number in the right margin.

The `math` environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, but the `displaymath` and `equation` environments can be used only in paragraph mode. The `math` and `displaymath` environments are used so often that they have the following short forms:

    \(...\)   instead of   \begin{math}...\end{math}
    \[...\]   instead of   \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath}

In fact, the `math` environment is so common that it has an even shorter form:

    $ ... $   instead of   \(...\)

The `\boldmath` command changes math letters and symbols to be in a bold font. It is used outside of math mode. Conversely, the `\unboldmath` command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; it too is used outside of math mode.

The `\displaystyle` declaration forces the size and style of the formula to be that of `displaymath`, e.g., with limits above and below summations. For example:

    $\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $

### 16.1 Subscripts & superscripts

In math mode, use the caret character `^` to make the exp appear as a superscript, ie. type `^{exp}`. Similarly, in math mode, underscore `_{exp}` makes a subscript out of exp.

In this example the `0` and `1` appear as subscripts while the `2` is a superscript.

    \( (x_0+x_1)^2 \)

To have more than one character in exp use curly braces as in `e^{-2x}`.

LaTeX handles superscripts on superscripts, and all of that stuff, in the natural way, so expressions such as `e^{x^2}` and `x_{a_0}` will look right. It also does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a superscript. In this example the `0` appears at the bottom of the integral sign while the `10` appears at the top.

    \int_0^{10} x^2 \,dx

You can put a superscript or subscript before a symbol with a construct such as `{}_t K^2` in math mode (the initial `{}` prevents the prefixed subscript from being attached to any prior symbols in the expression).

Outside of math mode, a construct like `A test$_\textnormal{subscript}$` will produce a subscript typeset in text mode, not math mode. Note that there are packages specialized for writing Chemical formulas such as `mhchem`.

### 16.2 Math symbols

LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you’re likely to need. For example, if you include `$\pi$` in your source, you will get the pi symbol π.

Below is a list of commonly-available symbols. It is by no means an exhaustive list. Each symbol here is described with a short phrase, and its symbol class (which determines the spacing around it) is given in parenthesis. The commands for these symbols can be used only in math mode.

`\|`

  ∥ Parallel (relation). Synonym: `\parallel`.

`\aleph`

  ℵ Aleph, transfinite cardinal (ordinary).

`\alpha`

  α Lower case Greek letter alpha (ordinary).

`\amalg`

  ⨿ Disjoint union (binary)

`\angle`

  ∠ Geometric angle (ordinary). Similar: less-than sign `<` and angle bracket `\langle`.

`\approx`

  ≈ Almost equal to (relation).

`\ast`

  ∗ Asterisk operator, convolution, six-pointed (binary). Synonym: `*`, which is often a superscript or subscript, as in the Kleene star. Similar: `\star`, which is five-pointed, and is sometimes used as a general binary operation, and sometimes reserved for cross-correlation.

`\asymp`

  ≍ Asymptomatically equivalent (relation).

`\backslash`

  \ Backslash (ordinary). Similar: set minus `\setminus`, and `\textbackslash` for backslash outside of math mode.

`\beta`

  β Lower case Greek letter beta (ordinary).

`\bigcap`

  ⋂ Variable-sized, or n-ary, intersection (operator). Similar: binary intersection `\cap`.

`\bigcirc`

  ⚪ Circle, larger (binary). Similar: function composition `\circ`.

`\bigcup`

  ⋃ Variable-sized, or n-ary, union (operator). Similar: binary union `\cup`.

`\bigodot`

  ⨀ Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled dot operator (operator).

`\bigoplus`

  ⨁ Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled plus operator (operator).

`\bigotimes`

  ⨂ Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled times operator (operator).

`\bigtriangledown`

  ▽ Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing down (operator).

`\bigtriangleup`

  △ Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing up (operator).

`\bigsqcup`

  ⨆ Variable-sized, or n-ary, square union (operator).

`\biguplus`

  ⨄ Variable-sized, or n-ary, union operator with a plus (operator). (Note that the name has only one p.)

`\bigvee`

  ⋁ Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-and (operator).

`\bigwedge`

  ⋀ Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-or (operator).

`\bot`

  ⊥ Up tack, bottom, least element of a poset, or a contradiction (ordinary). See also `\top`.

`\bowtie`

  ⋈ Natural join of two relations (relation).

`\Box`

  □ Modal operator for necessity; square open box (ordinary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the `amssymb` package.

`\bullet`

  • Bullet (binary). Similar: multiplication dot `\cdot`.

`\cap`

  ∩ Intersection of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator `\bigcap`.

`\cdot`

  ⋅ Multiplication (binary). Similar: Bullet dot `\bullet`.

`\chi`

  χ Lower case Greek chi (ordinary).

`\circ`

  ∘ Function composition, ring operator (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator `\bigcirc`.

`\clubsuit`

  ♣ Club card suit (ordinary).

`\complement`

  ∁ Set complement, used as a superscript as in `$S^\complement$` (ordinary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the `amssymb` package. Also used: `$S^{\mathsf{c}}$` or `$\bar{S}$`.

`\cong`

  ≅ Congruent (relation).

`\coprod`

  ∐ Coproduct (operator).

`\cup`

  ∪ Union of two sets (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator `\bigcup`.

`\dagger`

  † Dagger relation (binary).

`\dashv`

  ⊣ Dash with vertical, reversed turnstile (relation). Similar: turnstile `\vdash`.

`\ddagger`

  ‡ Double dagger relation (binary).

`\Delta`

  Δ Greek upper case delta, used for increment (ordinary).

`\delta`

  δ Greek lower case delta (ordinary).

`\Diamond`

  ◇ Large diamond operator (ordinary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you must load the `amssymb` package.

`\diamond`

  ⋄ Diamond operator, or diamond bullet (binary). Similar: large diamond `\Diamond`, circle bullet `\bullet`.

`\diamondsuit`

  ♢ Diamond card suit (ordinary).

`\div`

  ÷ Division sign (binary).

`\doteq`

  ≐ Approaches the limit (relation). Similar: geometrically equal to `\Doteq`.

`\downarrow`

  ↓ Down arrow, converges (relation). Similar: double line down arrow `\Downarrow`.

`\Downarrow`

  ⇓ Double line down arrow (relation). Similar: single line down arrow `\downarrow`.

`\ell`

  ℓ Lower-case cursive letter l (ordinary).

`\emptyset`

  ∅ Empty set symbol (ordinary). Similar: reversed empty set `\varnothing`.

`\epsilon`

  ϵ Lower case Greek-text letter (ordinary). More widely used in mathematics is the curly epsilon `\varepsilon` ε. Related: the set membership relation `\in` ∈.

`\equiv`

  ≡ Equivalence (relation).

`\eta`

  η Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\exists`

  ∃ Existential quantifier (ordinary).

`\flat`

  ♭ Musical flat (ordinary).

`\forall`

  ∀ Universal quantifier (ordinary).

`\frown`

  ⌢ Downward curving arc (ordinary).

`\Gamma`

  Γ Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\gamma`

  γ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\ge`

  ≥ Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for `\geq`.

`\geq`

  ≥ Greater than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for `\ge`.

`\gets`

  ← Is assigned the value (relation). Synonym: `\leftarrow`.

`\gg`

  ≫ Much greater than (relation). Similar: much less than `\ll`.

`\hbar`

  ℏ Planck constant over two pi (ordinary).

`\heartsuit`

  ♡ Heart card suit (ordinary).

`\hookleftarrow`

  ↩ Hooked left arrow (relation).

`\hookrightarrow`

  ↪ Hooked right arrow (relation).

`\iff`

  ⟷ If and only if (relation). It is `\Longleftrightarrow` with a `\thickmuskip` on either side.

`\Im`

  ℑ Imaginary part (ordinary). See: real part `\Re`.

`\in`

  ∈ Set element (relation). See also: lower case Greek letter epsilon `\epsilon`ϵ and rounded small epsilon `\varepsilon`.

`\infty`

  ∞ Infinity (ordinary).

`\int`

  ∫ Integral (operator).

`\iota`

  ι Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\Join`

  ⨝ Condensed bowtie symbol (relation). Not available in Plain TeX.

`\kappa`

  κ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\Lambda`

  Λ Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\lambda`

  λ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\land`

  ∧ Logical and (binary). This is a synonym for `\wedge`. See also logical or `\lor`.

`\langle`

  ⟨ Left angle, or sequence, bracket (opening). Similar: less-than `<`. Matches `\rangle`.

`\lbrace`

  { Left curly brace (opening). Synonym: `\{`. Matches `\rbrace`.

`\lbrack`

  [ Left square bracket (opening). Synonym: `[`. Matches `\rbrack`.

`\lceil`

  ⌈ Left ceiling bracket, like a square bracket but with the bottom shaved off (opening). Matches `\rceil`.

`\le`

  ≤ Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for `\leq`.

`\leadsto`

  ⇝ Squiggly right arrow (relation). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the `amssymb` package. To get this symbol outside of math mode you can put `\newcommand*{\Leadsto}{\ensuremath{\leadsto}}` in the preamble and then use `\Leadsto` instead.

`\Leftarrow`

  ⇐ Is implied by, double-line left arrow (relation). Similar: single-line left arrow `\leftarrow`.

`\leftarrow`

  ← Single-line left arrow (relation). Synonym: `\gets`. Similar: double-line left arrow `\Leftarrow`.

`\leftharpoondown`

  ↽ Single-line left harpoon, barb under bar (relation).

`\leftharpoonup`

  ↼ Single-line left harpoon, barb over bar (relation).

`\Leftrightarrow`

  ⇔ Bi-implication; double-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: single-line double headed arrow `\leftrightarrow`.

`\leftrightarrow`

  ↔ Single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: double-line double headed arrow `\Leftrightarrow`.

`\leq`

  ≤ Less than or equal to (relation). This is a synonym for `\le`.

`\lfloor`

  ⌊ Left floor bracket (opening).

`\lhd`

  ◁ Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing left (binary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the `amssymb` package. For the normal subgroup symbol you should load `amssymb` and use `\vartriangleleft` (which is a relation and so gives better spacing).

`\ll`

  ≪ Much less than (relation). Similar: much greater than `\gg`.

`\lnot`

  ¬ Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym: `\neg`.

`\longleftarrow`

  ⟵ Long single-line left arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line left arrow `\Longleftarrow`.

`\longleftrightarrow`

  ⟷ Long single-line double-headed arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line double-headed arrow `\Longleftrightarrow`.

`\longmapsto`

  ⟼ Long single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar (relation). Similar: shorter version `\mapsto`.

`\longrightarrow`

  ⟶ Long single-line right arrow (relation). Similar: long double-line right arrow `\Longrightarrow`.

`\lor`

  ∨ Logical or (binary). Synonym: wedge `\wedge`.

`\mapsto`

  ↦ Single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar (relation). Similar: longer version `\longmapsto`.

`\mho`

  ℧ Conductance, half-circle rotated capital omega (ordinary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the `amssymb` package.

`\mid`

  ∣ Single-line vertical bar (relation). A typical use of `\mid` is for a set `\{\, x \mid x\geq 5 \,\}`.

  Similar: `\vert` and `|` produce the same single-line vertical bar symbol but without any spacing (they fall in class ordinary) and you should not use them as relations but instead only as ordinals, i.e., footnote symbols. For absolute value, see the entry for `\vert` and for norm see the entry for `\Vert`.

`\models`

  ⊨ Entails, or satisfies; double turnstile, short double dash (relation). Similar: long double dash `\vDash`.

`\mp`

  ∓ Minus or plus (relation).

`\mu`

  μ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\nabla`

  ∇ Hamilton’s del, or differential, operator (ordinary).

`\natural`

  ♮ Musical natural notation (ordinary).

`\ne`

  ≠ Not equal (relation). Synonym: `\neq`.

`\nearrow`

  ↗ North-east arrow (relation).

`\neg`

  ¬ Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym: `\lnot`. Sometimes instead used for negation: `\sim`.

`\neq`

  ≠ Not equal (relation). Synonym: `\ne`.

`\ni`

  ∋ Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation). Synonym: `\owns`. Similar: is a member of `\in`.

`\not`

  ̸ Long solidus, or slash, used to overstrike a following operator (relation).

  Many negated operators that don’t require `\not` are available, particularly with the `amssymb` package. For example, `\notin` is probably typographically preferable to `\not\in`.

`\notin`

  ∉ Not an element of (relation). Similar: not subset of `\nsubseteq`.

`\nu`

  ν Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\nwarrow`

  ↖ North-west arrow (relation).

`\odot`

  ⊙ Dot inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator `\bigodot`.

`\oint`

  ∮ Contour integral, integral with circle in the middle (operator).

`\Omega`

  Ω Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\omega`

  ω Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\ominus`

  ⊖ Minus sign, or dash, inside a circle (binary).

`\oplus`

  ⊕ Plus sign inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator `\bigoplus`.

`\oslash`

  ⊘ Solidus, or slash, inside a circle (binary).

`\otimes`

  ⊗ Times sign, or cross, inside a circle (binary). Similar: variable-sized operator `\bigotimes`.

`\owns`

  ∋ Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation). Synonym: `\ni`. Similar: is a member of `\in`.

`\parallel`

  ∥ Parallel (relation). Synonym: `\|`.

`\partial`

  ∂ Partial differential (ordinary).

`\perp`

  ⟂ Perpendicular (relation). Similar: `\bot` uses the same glyph but the spacing is different because it is in the class ordinary.

`\phi`

  ϕ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is `\varphi` φ.

`\Pi`

  Π Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\pi`

  π Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is `\varpi` ϖ.

`\pm`

  ± Plus or minus (binary).

`\prec`

  ≺ Preceeds (relation). Similar: less than `<`.

`\preceq`

  ⪯ Preceeds or equals (relation). Similar: less than or equals `\leq`.

`\prime`

  ′ Prime, or minute in a time expression (ordinary). Typically used as a superscript `$A^\prime$`. Note that `$f^\prime$` and `$f'$` produce the same result. An advantage of the second is that `$f'''$` produces the the desired symbol, that is, the same result as `$f^{\prime\prime\prime}$`, but uses somewhat less typing. Note that you can only use `\prime` in math mode but you can type right single quote `'` in text mode also, although it resuts in a different look than in math mode.

`\prod`

  ∏ Product (operator).

`\propto`

  ∝ Is proportional to (relation)

`\Psi`

  Ψ Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\psi`

  ψ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\rangle`

  ➹ Right angle, or sequence, bracket (closing). Similar: greater than `>`. Matches:`\langle`.

`\rbrace`

  } Right curly brace (closing). Synonym: `\}`. Matches `\lbrace`.

`\rbrack`

  ] Right square bracket (closing). Synonym: `]`. Matches `\lbrack`.

`\rceil`

  ⌉ Right ceiling bracket (closing). Matches `\lceil`.

`\Re`

  ℜ Real part, real numbers, cursive capital R (ordinary). Related: double-line, or blackboard bold, R `\mathbb{R}`; to access this, load the `amsfonts` package.

`\restriction`

  ↾ Restriction of a function (relation). Synonym: `\upharpoonright`. Not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the `amssymb` package.

`\rfloor`

  ⌋ Right floor bracket, a right square bracket with the top cut off (closing). Matches `\lfloor`.

`\rhd`

  ◁ Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing right (binary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the `amssymb` package. For the normal subgroup symbol you should instead load `amssymb` and use `\vartriangleright` (which is a relation and so gives better spacing).

`\rho`

  ρ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is `\varrho` ϱ.

`\Rightarrow`

  ⇒ Implies, right-pointing double line arrow (relation). Similar: right single-line arrow `\rightarrow`.

`\rightarrow`

  → Right-pointing single line arrow (relation). Synonym: `\to`. Similar: right double line arrow `\Rightarrow`.

`\rightharpoondown`

  ⇁ Right-pointing harpoon with barb below the line (relation).

`\rightharpoonup`

  ⇀ Right-pointing harpoon with barb above the line (relation).

`\rightleftharpoons`

  ⇌ Right harpoon up above left harpoon down (relation).

`\searrow`

  ↘ Arrow pointing southeast (relation).

`\setminus`

  ⧵ Set difference, reverse solidus or slash, like \ (binary). Similar: backslash `\backslash` and also `\textbackslash` outside of math mode.

`\sharp`

  ♯ Musical sharp (ordinary).

`\Sigma`

  Σ Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\sigma`

  σ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is `\varsigma` ς.

`\sim`

  ∼ Similar, in a relation (relation).

`\simeq`

  ≃ Similar or equal to, in a relation (relation).

`\smallint`

  ∫ Integral sign that does not change to a larger size in a display (operator).

`\smile`

  ⌣ Upward curving arc (ordinary).

`\spadesuit`

  ♠ Spade card suit (ordinary).

`\sqcap`

  ⊓ Square intersection symbol (binary). Similar: intersection `cap`.

`\sqcup`

  ⊔ Square union symbol (binary). Similar: union `cup`. Related: variable-sized operator `\bigsqcup`.

`\sqsubset`

  ⊏ Square subset symbol (relation). Similar: subset `\subset`. This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the `amssymb` package.

`\sqsubseteq`

  ⊑ Square subset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: subset or equal to `\subseteq`.

`\sqsupset`

  ⊐ Square superset symbol (relation). Similar: superset `\supset`. This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the `amssymb` package.

`\sqsupseteq`

  ⊒ Square superset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: superset or equal `\supseteq`.

`\star`

  ⋆ Five-pointed star, sometimes used as a general binary operation but sometimes reserved for cross-correlation (binary). Similar: the synonyms asterisk `*` and `\ast`, which are six-pointed, and more often appear as a superscript or subscript, as with the Kleene star.

`\subset`

  ⊂ Subset (occasionally, is implied by) (relation).

`\subseteq`

  ⊆ Subset or equal to (relation).

`\succ`

  ≻ Comes after, succeeds (relation). Similar: is less than `>`.

`\succeq`

  ⪰ Succeeds or is equal to (relation). Similar: less than or equal to `\leq`.

`\sum`

  ∑ Summation (operator). Similar: Greek capital sigma `\Sigma`.

`\supset`

  ⊃ Superset (relation).

`\supseteq`

  ⊇ Superset or equal to (relation).

`\surd`

  √ Radical symbol (ordinary). The LaTeX command `\sqrt{..}` typesets the square root of the argument, with a bar that extends to cover the argument.

`\swarrow`

  ↙ Southwest-pointing arrow (relation).

`\tau`

  τ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\theta`

  θ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is `\vartheta` ϑ.

`\times`

  × Primary school multiplication sign (binary). See also `\cdot`.

`\to`

  → Right-pointing single line arrow (relation). Synonym: `\rightarrow`.

`\top`

  ⊤ Top, greatest element of a poset (ordinary). See also `\bot`.

`\triangle`

  △ Triangle (ordinary).

`\triangleleft`

  ◁ Not-filled triangle pointing left (binary). Similar: `\lhd`. For the normal subgroup symbol you should load `amssymb` and use `\vartriangleleft` (which is a relation and so gives better spacing).

`\triangleright`

  ▷ Not-filled triangle pointing right (binary). For the normal subgroup symbol you should instead load `amssymb` and use `\vartriangleright` (which is a relation and so gives better spacing).

`\unlhd`

  ⊴ Left-pointing not-filled arrowhead, that is, triangle, with a line under (binary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the `amssymb` package. For the normal subgroup symbol load `amssymb` and use `\vartrianglelefteq` (which is a relation and so gives better spacing).

`\unrhd`

  ⊵ Right-pointing not-filled arrowhead, that is, triangle, with a line under (binary). This is not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the `amssymb` package. For the normal subgroup symbol load `amssymb` and use `\vartrianglerighteq` (which is a relation and so gives better spacing).

`\Uparrow`

  ⇑ Double-line upward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: single-line up-pointing arrow `\uparrow`.

`\uparrow`

  ↑ Single-line upward-pointing arrow, diverges (relation). Similar: double-line up-pointing arrow `\Uparrow`.

`\Updownarrow`

  ⇕ Double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow `\updownarrow`.

`\updownarrow`

  ↕ Single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation). Similar: double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow `\Updownarrow`.

`\upharpoonright`

  ↾ Up harpoon, with barb on right side (relation). Synonym: `\restriction`. Not available in Plain TeX. In LaTeX you should load the `amssymb` package.

`\uplus`

  ⊎ Multiset union, a union symbol with a plus symbol in the middle (binary). Similar: union `\cup`. Related: variable-sized operator `\biguplus`.

`\Upsilon`

  Υ Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\upsilon`

  υ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\varepsilon`

  ε Rounded small epsilon (ordinary). This is more widely used in mathematics than the non-variant lower case Greek-text letter form `\epsilon` ϵ. Related: set membership `\in`.

`\varphi`

  φ Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is `\phi` ϕ.

`\varpi`

  ϖ Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is `\pi` π.

`\varrho`

  ϱ Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is `\rho` ρ.

`\varsigma`

  ς Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is `\sigma` σ.

`\vartheta`

  ϑ Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary). The non-variant form is `\theta` θ.

`\vdash`

  ⊢ Provable; turnstile, vertical and a dash (relation). Similar: turnstile rotated a half-circle `\dashv`.

`\vee`

  ∨ Logical or; a downwards v shape (binary). Related: logical and `\wedge`. Similar: variable-sized operator `\bigvee`.

`\Vert`

  ‖ Vertical double bar (ordinary). Similar: vertical single bar `\vert`.

  For a norm you can use the `mathtools` package and add `\DeclarePairedDelimiter\norm{\lVert}{\rVert}` to your preamble. This gives you three command variants for double-line vertical bars that are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you write the starred version `$\norm*{M^\perp}$` then the height of the vertical bars will match the height of the argument, whereas with `\norm{M^\perp}` the bars do not grow with the height of the argument but instead are the default height, and `\norm[size command]{M^\perp}` also gives bars that do not grow but are set to the size given in the size command, e.g., `\Bigg`.

`\vert`

  | Single line vertical bar (ordinary). Similar: double-line vertical bar `\Vert`. For such that, as in the definition of a set, use `\mid` because it is a relation.

  For absolute value you can use the `mathtools` package and add `\DeclarePairedDelimiter\abs{\lvert}{\rvert}` to your preamble. This gives you three command variants for single-line vertical bars that are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you write the starred version `$\abs*{\frac{22}{7}}$` then the height of the vertical bars will match the height of the argument, whereas with `\abs{\frac{22}{7}}` the bars do not grow with the height of the argument but instead are the default height, and `\abs[size command]{\frac{22}{7}}` also gives bars that do not grow but are set to the size given in the size command, e.g., `\Bigg`.

`\wedge`

  ∧ Logical and (binary). Synonym: `\land`. See also logical or `\vee`. Similar: variable-sized operator `\bigwedge`.

`\wp`

  ℘ Weierstrass p (ordinary).

`\wr`

  ≀ Wreath product (binary).

`\Xi`

  Ξ Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\xi`

  ξ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

`\zeta`

  ζ Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

### 16.3 Math functions

These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper spacing.

`\arccos`

  \arccos

`\arcsin`

  \arcsin

`\arctan`

  \arctan

`\arg`

  \arg

`\bmod`

  Binary modulo operator (x \bmod y)

`\cos`

  \cos

`\cosh`

  \cosh

`\cot`

  \cot

`\coth`

  \coth

`\csc`

  \csc

`\deg`

  \deg

`\det`

  \det

`\dim`

  \dim

`\exp`

  \exp

`\gcd`

  \gcd

`\hom`

  \hom

`\inf`

  \inf

`\ker`

  \ker

`\lg`

  \lg

`\lim`

  \lim

`\liminf`

  \liminf

`\limsup`

  \limsup

`\ln`

  \ln

`\log`

  \log

`\max`

  \max

`\min`

  \min

`\pmod`

  parenthesized modulus, as in (\pmod 2^n - 1)

`\Pr`

  \Pr

`\sec`

  \sec

`\sin`

  \sin

`\sinh`

  \sinh

`\sup`

  sup

`\tan`

  \tan

`\tanh`

  \tanh

### 16.4 Math accents

LaTeX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in math. These are different from accents in normal text (see Accents).

`\acute`

  Math acute accent: \acute{x}.

`\bar`

  Math bar-over accent: \bar{x}.

`\breve`

  Math breve accent: \breve{x}.

`\check`

  Math háček (check) accent: \check{x}.

`\ddot`

  Math dieresis accent: \ddot{x}.

`\dot`

  Math dot accent: \dot{x}.

`\grave`

  Math grave accent: \grave{x}.

`\hat`

  Math hat (circumflex) accent: \hat{x}.

`\imath`

  Math dotless i.

`\jmath`

  Math dotless j.

`\mathring`

  Math ring accent: x*.

`\tilde`

  Math tilde accent: \tilde{x}.

`\vec`

  Math vector symbol: \vec{x}.

`\widehat`

  Math wide hat accent: \widehat{x+y}.

`\widetilde`

  Math wide tilde accent: \widetilde{x+y}.

### 16.5 Spacing in math mode

In a `math` environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces that you use in the source, and instead puts in the spacing according to the normal rules for mathematics texts.

Many math mode spacing definitions are expressed in terms of the math unit mu given by 1 em = 18 mu, where the em is taken from the current math symbols family (see Units of length). LaTeX provides the following commands for use in math mode:

`\;`

  Normally `5.0mu plus 5.0mu`. The longer name is `\thickspace`. Math mode only.

`\:`
`\>`

  Normally `4.0mu plus 2.0mu minus 4.0mu`. The longer name is `\medspace`. Math mode only.

`\,`

  Normally `3mu`. The longer name is `\thinspace`. This can be used in both math mode and text mode.

`\!`

  A negative thin space. Normally `-3mu`. Math mode only.

`\quad`

  This is 18mu, that is, 1em. This is often used for space surrounding equations or expressions, for instance for the space between two equations inside a `displaymath` environment. It is available in both text and math mode.

`\qquad`

  A length of 2 quads, that is, 36mu = 2em. It is available in both text and math mode.

In this example a thinspace separates the function from the infinitesimal.

    \int_0^1 f(x)\,dx

### 16.6 Math miscellany

`\*`

  A “discretionary” multiplication symbol, at which a line break is allowed.

`\cdots`

  A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line.

`\ddots`

  A diagonal ellipsis: \ddots.

`\frac{num}{den}`

  Produces the fraction `num` divided by `den`.

`\left delim1 ... \right delim2`

  The two delimiters need not match; ‘`.`’ acts as a null delimiter, producing no output. The delimiters are sized according to the math in between. Example: `\left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]`.

`\overbrace{text}`

  Generates a brace over text. For example, \overbrace{x+\cdots+x}^{k \rm\;times}.

`\overline{text}`

  Generates a horizontal line over tex. For example, \overline{x+y}.

`\sqrt[root]{arg}`

  Produces the representation of the square root of arg. The optional argument root determines what root to produce. For example, the cube root of `x+y` would be typed as `$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$`.

`\stackrel{text}{relation}`

  Puts text above relation. For example, `\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}`.

`\underbrace{math}`

  Generates math with a brace underneath.

`\underline{text}`

  Causes text, which may be either math mode or not, to be underlined. The line is always below the text, taking account of descenders.

`\vdots`

  Produces a vertical ellipsis.

## 17 Modes

When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three modes:

- Paragraph mode
- Math mode
- Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short

Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when LaTeX is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands.

Paragraph mode is the most common; it’s the one LaTeX is in when processing ordinary text. In this mode, LaTeX breaks the input text into lines and breaks the lines into pages.

LaTeX is in math mode when it’s generating a mathematical formula, either displayed math or within a line.

In LR mode, as in paragraph mode, LaTeX considers the output that it produces to be a string of words with spaces between them. However, unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX keeps going from left to right; it never starts a new line in LR mode. Even if you put a hundred words into an `\mbox`, LaTeX would keep typesetting them from left to right inside a single box (and then most likely complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line). LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an `\mbox` command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box—for example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box.

There are also several text-producing commands and environments for making a box that put LaTeX into paragraph mode. The box made by one of these commands or environments will be called a `parbox`. When LaTeX is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in “inner paragraph mode” (no page breaks). Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out in, is called “outer paragraph mode”.

## 18 Page styles

The `\documentclass` command determines the size and position of the page’s head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them.

### 18.1 `\maketitle`

The `\maketitle` command generates a title on a separate title page—except in the `article` class, where the title is placed at the top of the first page. Information used to produce the title is obtained from the following declarations:

`\author{name \and name2}`

  The `\author` command declares the document author(s), where the argument is a list of authors separated by `\and` commands. Use `\\` to separate lines within a single author’s entry—for example, to give the author’s institution or address.

`\date{text}`

  The `\date` command declares text to be the document’s date. With no `\date` command, the current date (see \today) is used.

`\thanks{text}`

  The `\thanks` command produces a `\footnote` to the title, usually used for credit acknowledgements.

`\title{text}`

  The `\title` command declares text to be the title of the document. Use `\\` to force a line break, as usual.

### 18.2 `\pagenumbering`

Synopsis:

    \pagenumbering{style}

Specifies the style of page numbers, according to style; also resets the page number to 1. The style argument is one of the following:

`arabic`

  arabic numerals

`roman`

  lowercase Roman numerals

`Roman`

  uppercase Roman numerals

`alph`

  lowercase letters

`Alph`

  uppercase letters

### 18.3 `\pagestyle`

Synopsis:

    \pagestyle{style}

The `\pagestyle` command specifies how the headers and footers are typeset from the current page onwards. Values for style:

`plain`

  Just a plain page number.

`empty`

  Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers.

`headings`

  Put running headers on each page. The document style specifies what goes in the headers.

`myheadings`

  Custom headers, specified via the `\markboth` or the `\markright` commands.

Here are the descriptions of `\markboth` and `\markright`:

`\markboth{left}{right}`

  Sets both the left and the right heading. A “left-hand heading” (left) is generated by the last `\markboth` command before the end of the page, while a “right-hand heading” (right) is generated by the first `\markboth` or `\markright` that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before the page.

`\markright{right}`

  Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged.

### 18.4 `\thispagestyle{style}`

The `\thispagestyle` command works in the same manner as the `\pagestyle` command (see previous section) except that it changes to style for the current page only.

## 19 Spaces

LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space.

### 19.1 `\hspace`

Synopsis:

    \hspace{length}
    \hspace*{length}

Add the horizontal space given by length. The length is a rubber length, that is, it may contain a `plus` or `minus` component, in any unit that LaTeX understands (see Lengths).

This command can add both positive and negative space; adding negative space is like backspacing.

Normally when TeX breaks a paragraph into lines it discards white space (glues and kerns) that would come at the start of a line, so you get an inter-word space or a line break between words but not both. This command’s starred version `\hspace*{..}` puts a non-discardable invisible item in front of the space, so the space appears in the output.

This example make a one-line paragraph that puts ‘`Name:`’ an inch from the right margin.

    \noindent\makebox[\linewidth]{\hspace{\fill}Name:\hspace{1in}}

### 19.2 `\hfill`

Produce a rubber length which has no natural space but can stretch horizontally as far as needed (see Lengths).

The command `\hfill` is equivalent to `\hspace{\fill}`. For space that does not disappear at line breaks use `\hspace*{\fill}` instead (see \hspace).

### 19.3 `\(SPACE)` and \@

Mark a punctuation character, typically a period, as either ending a sentence or as ending an abbreviation.

By default, in justifying a line LaTeX adjusts the space after a sentence-ending period (or a question mark, exclamation point, comma, or colon) more than the space between words (see \frenchspacing). LaTeX assumes that the period ends a sentence unless it is preceded by a capital letter, in which case it takes that period for part of an abbreviation. Note that if a sentence-ending period is immediately followed by a right parenthesis or bracket, or right single or double quote, then the intersentence space follows that parenthesis or quote.

If you have a period ending an abbreviation whose last letter is not a capital letter, and that abbreviation is not the last word in the sentence, then follow that period with a backslash-space (`\` ) or a tie (`~`). Examples are `Nat.\ Acad.\ Science`, and `Mr.~Bean`, and `(manure, etc.)\ for sale`.

For other use of `\` , see also \(SPACE) after CS.

In the opposite situation, if you have a capital letter followed by a period that ends the sentence, then put `\@` on the left of that period. For example, `book by the MAA\@.` will have intersentence spacing after the period.

In contrast, putting `\@` on the right of a period tells TeX that the period does not end the sentence. In the example `reserved words (if, then, etc.\@) are different`, TeX will put interword space after the closing parenthesis (note that `\@` is before the parenthesis).

### 19.4 `\` after a control sequence

The `\` command is often used after control sequences to keep them from gobbling the space that follows, as in `\TeX\ is a nice system.` And, under normal circumstances `\``tab` and `\``newline` are equivalent to `\` . For other use of `\` , see also \(SPACE) and \@.

Some people prefer to use `{}` for the same purpose, as in `\TeX{} is a nice system.` This has the advantage that you can always write it the same way, like `\TeX{}`, whether it is followed by a space or by a punctuation mark. Please compare:

    \TeX\ is a nice system. \TeX, a nice system.

    \TeX{} is a nice system. \TeX{}, a nice system.

When you define user commands (see \newcommand & \renewcommand) you can prevent the space gobbling after the command by using the package `xspace` and inserting `\xspace` at the end of the definition For instance:

    \documentclass{minimal}
    \usepackage{xspace}
    \newcommand*{\Loup}{Grand Cric\xspace}
    \begin{document}
    Que le \Loup me croque !
    \end{document}

A quick hack to use `\xspace` for existing command is as follows:

    \documentclass{minimal}
    \usepackage{xspace}
    \newcommand*{\SansXspaceTeX}{}
    \let\SansXspaceTeX\TeX
    \renewcommand{\TeX}{\SansXspaceTeX\xspace}
    \begin{document}
    \TeX is a nice system.
    \end{document}

### 19.5 `\frenchspacing`

This declaration (from Plain TeX) causes LaTeX to treat intersentence spacing in the same way as interword spacing.

In justifying the text in a line, some typographic traditions, including English, prefer to adjust the space between sentences (or after other punctuation marks) more than the space between words. Following this declaration, all spaces are instead treated equally.

Revert to the default behavior by declaring `\nonfrenchspacing`.

### 19.6 `\thinspace`: Insert 1/6em

`\thinspace` produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that is 1/6 of an em. This is the proper space to use between nested quotes, as in ’”.

### 19.7 `\/`: Insert italic correction

The `\/` command produces an italic correction. This is a small space defined by the font designer for a given character, to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. The italic f character typically has a large italic correction value.

If the following character is a period or comma, it’s not necessary to insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as normal letters, it can help. Compare f: f; (in the TeX output, the ‘f’s are nicely separated) with f: f;.

When changing fonts with commands such as `\textit{italic text}` or `{\itshape italic text}`, LaTeX will automatically insert an italic correction if appropriate (see Font styles).

Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic correction. Compare pdfTeX (in the TeX output, there is a small space after the ‘f’) with pdfTeX.

There is no concept of italic correction in math mode; spacing is done in a different way.

### 19.8 `\hrulefill \dotfill`

Produce an infinite rubber length (see Lengths) filled with a horizontal rule (that is, a line) or with dots, instead of just white space.

When placed between blank lines this example creates a paragraph that is left and right justified, where the space in the middle is filled with evenly spaced dots.

    \noindent Jack Aubrey\dotfill Melbury Lodge

To make the rule or dots go to the line’s end use `\null` at the start or end.

To change the rule’s thickness, copy the definition and adjust it, as with `\renewcommand{\hrulefill}{\leavevmode\leaders\hrule height 1pt\hfill\kern\z@}`, which changes the default thickness of 0.4pt to 1pt. Similarly, adjust the dot spacing as with `\renewcommand{\dotfill}{\leavevmode\cleaders\hb@xt@ 1.00em{\hss .\hss }\hfill\kern\z@}`, which changes the default length of 0.33em to 1.00em.

### 19.9 `\addvspace`

`\addvspace{length}`

Add a vertical space of height length, which is a rubber length (see Lengths). However, if vertical space has already been added to the same point in the output by a previous `\addvspace` command then this command will not add more space than what is needed to make the natural length of the total vertical space equal to length.

Use this command to adjust the vertical space above or below an environment that starts a new paragraph. (For instance, a Theorem environment is defined to begin and end in `\addvspace{..}` so that two consecutive Theorem’s are separated by one vertical space, not two.)

This command is fragile (see \protect).

The error ‘`Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item`’ means that you were not in vertical mode when you invoked this command; one way to change that is to precede this command with a `\par` command.

### 19.10 `\bigskip \medskip \smallskip`

These commands produce a given amount of space, specified by the document class.

`\bigskip`

  The same as `\vspace{\bigskipamount}`, ordinarily about one line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the `book` and `article` classes is `12pt plus 4pt minus 4pt`).

`\medskip`

  The same as `\vspace{\medskipamount}`, ordinarily about half of a line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the `book` and `article` classes is `6pt plus 2pt minus 2pt`).

`\smallskip`

  The same as `\vspace{\smallskipamount}`, ordinarily about a quarter of a line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the `book` and `article` classes is `3pt plus 1pt minus 1pt`).

### 19.11 `\vfill`

End the current paragraph and insert a vertical rubber length (see Lengths) that is infinite, so it can stretch or shrink as far as needed.

It is often used in the same way as `\vspace{\fill}`, except that `\vfill` ends the current paragraph, whereas `\vspace{\fill}` adds the infinite vertical space below its line irrespective of the paragraph structure. In both cases that space will disappear at a page boundary; to circumvent this see \vspace.

In this example the page is filled, so the top and bottom lines contain the text ‘`Lost Dog!`’ and the third ‘`Lost Dog!`’ is exactly halfway between them.

    \begin{document}
    Lost Dog!
    \vfill
    Lost Dog!
    \vfill
    Lost Dog!
    \end{document}

### 19.12 `\vspace{length}`

Synopsis, one of these two:

    \vspace{length}
    \vspace*{length}

Add the vertical space length. This can be negative or positive, and is a rubber length (see Lengths).

LaTeX removes the vertical space from `\vfill` at a page break, that is, at the top or bottom of a page. The starred version `\vspace*{..}` causes the space to stay.

In this example the two questions will be evenly spaced vertically on the page, with at least one inch of space below each.

    \begin{document}
    1) Who put the bomp in the bomp bah bomp bah bomp?
    \vspace{1in plus 1fill}

    2) Who put the ram in the rama lama ding dong?
    \vspace{1in plus 1fill}
    \end{document}

## 20 Boxes

All the predefined length parameters (see Predefined lengths) can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands.

### 20.1 `\mbox{text}`

The `\mbox` command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text created by its argument. The text is not broken into lines, so it can be used to prevent hyphenation.

### 20.2 `\fbox` and `\framebox`

Synopses:

    \fbox{text}
    \framebox[width][position]{text}

The `\fbox` and `\framebox` commands are like `\mbox`, except that they put a frame around the outside of the box being created.

In addition, the `\framebox` command allows for explicit specification of the box width with the optional width argument (a dimension), and positioning with the optional position argument.

Both commands produce a rule of thickness `\fboxrule` (default ‘`.4pt`’), and leave a space of `\fboxsep` (default ‘`3pt`’) between the rule and the contents of the box.

See \framebox (picture), for the `\framebox` command in the `picture` environment.

### 20.3 `lrbox`

`\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}`

This is the environment form of `\sbox`.

The text inside the environment is saved in the box `cmd`, which must have been declared with `\newsavebox`.

### 20.4 `\makebox`

Synopsis:

    \makebox[width][position]{text}

The `\makebox` command creates a box just wide enough to contain the text specified. The width of the box can be overridden by the optional width argument. The position of the text within the box is determined by the optional position argument, which may take the following values:

`c`

  Centered (default).

`l`

  Flush left.

`r`

  Flush right.

`s`

  Stretch (justify) across entire width; text must contain stretchable space for this to work.

`\makebox` is also used within the `picture` environment see \makebox (picture).

### 20.5 `\parbox`

Synopsis:

    \parbox[position][height][inner-pos]{width}{text}

The `\parbox` command produces a box whose contents are created in `paragraph` mode. It should be used to make a box small pieces of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you shouldn’t use any paragraph-making environments inside a `\parbox` argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use a `minipage` environment (see minipage).

`\parbox` has two mandatory arguments:

width

  the width of the parbox;

text

  the text that goes inside the parbox.

The optional position argument allows you to align either the top or bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding text (default is top).

The optional height argument overrides the natural height of the box.

The inner-pos argument controls the placement of the text inside the box, as follows; if it is not specified, position is used.

`t`

  text is placed at the top of the box.

`c`

  text is centered in the box.

`b`

  text is placed at the bottom of the box.

`s`

  stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable space for this to work.

### 20.6 `\raisebox`

Synopsis:

    \raisebox{distance}[height][depth]{text}

The `\raisebox` command raises or lowers text. The first mandatory argument specifies how high text is to be raised (or lowered if it is a negative amount). text itself is processed in LR mode.

The optional arguments height and depth are dimensions. If they are specified, LaTeX treats text as extending a certain distance above the baseline (height) or below (depth), ignoring its natural height and depth.

### 20.7 `\savebox`

Synopsis:

    \savebox{\boxcmd}[width][pos]{text}

This command typeset text in a box just as with `\makebox` (see \makebox), except that instead of printing the resulting box, it saves it in the box labeled \boxcmd, which must have been declared with `\newsavebox` (see \newsavebox).

### 20.8 `\sbox{\boxcmd}{text}`

Synopsis:

    \sbox{\boxcmd}{text}

`\sbox` types text in a box just as with `\mbox` (see \mbox) except that instead of the resulting box being included in the normal output, it is saved in the box labeled \boxcmd. \boxcmd must have been previously declared with `\newsavebox` (see \newsavebox).

### 20.9 `\usebox{\boxcmd}`

Synopsis:

    \usebox{\boxcmd}

`\usebox` produces the box most recently saved in the bin \boxcmd by a `\savebox` command (see \savebox).

## 21 Special insertions

LaTeX provides commands for inserting characters that have a special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type.

### 21.1 Reserved characters

The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called “reserved characters” or “special characters”.

    # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }

Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, LaTeX will do something special. If you simply want the character to be printed as itself, include a `\` in front of the character. For example, `\$` will produce `$` in your output.

One exception to this rule is `\` itself, because `\\` has its own special (context-dependent) meaning. A roman \ is produced by typing `$\backslash$` in your file, and a typewriter `\` is produced by using ‘`\`’ in a verbatim command (see verbatim).

Also, `\~` and `\^` place tilde and circumflex accents over the following letter, as in õ and ô (see Accents); to get a standalone `~` or `^`, you can again use a verbatim command.

Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you know its number by using the `\symbol` command. For example, the visible space character used in the `\verb*` command has the code decimal 32, so it can be typed as `\symbol{32}`.

You can also specify octal numbers with `'` or hexadecimal numbers with `"`, so the previous example could also be written as `\symbol{'40}` or `\symbol{"20}`.

### 21.2 Text symbols

LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in running text. Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are not available in OT1; you may need to load the `textcomp` package.

`\copyright`
`\textcopyright`

  The copyright symbol, ©.

`\dag`

  The dagger symbol (in text).

`\ddag`

  The double dagger symbol (in text).

`\LaTeX`

  The LaTeX logo.

`\LaTeXe`

  The LaTeX2e logo.

`\guillemotleft («)`
`\guillemotright (»)`
`\guilsinglleft (‹)`
`\guilsinglright (›)`

  Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French: «, », ‹, ›.

`\ldots`
`\dots`
`\textellipsis`

  An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): ‘…’. `\ldots` and `\dots` also work in math mode.

`\lq`

  Left (opening) quote: ‘.

`\P`
`\textparagraph`

  Paragraph sign (pilcrow).

`\pounds`
`\textsterling`

  English pounds sterling: £.

`\quotedblbase („)`
`\quotesinglbase (‚)`

  Double and single quotation marks on the baseline: „ and ‚.

`\rq`

  Right (closing) quote: ’.

`\S`

  Section symbol.

`\TeX`

  The TeX logo.

`\textasciicircum`

  ASCII circumflex: ^.

`\textasciitilde`

  ASCII tilde: ~.

`\textasteriskcentered`

  Centered asterisk: *.

`\textbackslash`

  Backslash: \.

`\textbar`

  Vertical bar: |.

`\textbardbl`

  Double vertical bar.

`\textbigcircle`

  Big circle symbol.

`\textbraceleft`

  Left brace: {.

`\textbraceright`

  Right brace: }.

`\textbullet`

  Bullet: •.

`\textcircled{letter}`

  letter in a circle, as in ®.

`\textcompwordmark`
`\textcapitalwordmark`
`\textascenderwordmark`

  Composite word mark (invisible). The `\textcapital...` form has the cap height of the font, while the `\textascender...` form has the ascender height.

`\textdagger`

  Dagger: \dag.

`\textdaggerdbl`

  Double dagger: \ddag.

`\textdollar (or `$`)`

  Dollar sign: $.

`\textemdash (or `---`)`

  Em-dash: — (for punctuation).

`\textendash (or `--`)`

  En-dash: – (for ranges).

`\texteuro`

  The Euro symbol: €.

`\textexclamdown (or `!``)`

  Upside down exclamation point: ¡.

`\textgreater`

  Greater than: >.

`\textless`

  Less than: <.

`\textleftarrow`

  Left arrow.

`\textordfeminine`
`\textordmasculine`

  Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols: ª, º.

`\textperiodcentered`

  Centered period: \cdot.

`\textquestiondown (or `?``)`

  Upside down question mark: ¿.

`\textquotedblleft (or ````)`

  Double left quote: “.

`\textquotedblright (or `'`)`

  Double right quote: ”.

`\textquoteleft (or ```)`

  Single left quote: ‘.

`\textquoteright (or `'`)`

  Single right quote: ’.

`\textquotestraightbase`
`\textquotestraightdblbase`

  Single and double straight quotes on the baseline.

`\textregistered`

  Registered symbol: ®.

`\textrightarrow`

  Right arrow.

`\textthreequartersemdash`

  “Three-quarters” em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.

`\texttrademark`

  Trademark symbol: ^{\hbox{TM}}.

`\texttwelveudash`

  “Two-thirds” em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.

`\textunderscore`

  Underscore: _.

`\textvisiblespace`

  Visible space symbol.

### 21.3 Accents

LaTeX has wide support for many of the world’s scripts and languages, through the `babel` package and related support. This section does not attempt to cover all that support. It merely lists the core LaTeX commands for creating accented characters.

The `\capital...` commands produce alternative forms for use with capital letters. These are not available with OT1.

`\"`
`\capitaldieresis`

  Produces an umlaut (dieresis), as in ö.

`\'`
`\capitalacute`

  Produces an acute accent, as in ó. In the `tabbing` environment, pushes current column to the right of the previous column (see tabbing).

`\.`

  Produces a dot accent over the following, as in ȯ.

`\=`
`\capitalmacron`

  Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in ō.

`\^`
`\capitalcircumflex`

  Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in ô.

`\``
`\capitalgrave`

  Produces a grave accent over the following, as in ò. In the `tabbing` environment, move following text to the right margin (see tabbing).

`\~`
`\capitaltilde`

  Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in ñ.

`\b`

  Produces a bar accent under the following, as in o_. See also `\underbar` hereinafter.

`\c`
`\capitalcedilla`

  Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in ç.

`\d`
`\capitaldotaccent`

  Produces a dot accent under the following, as in ọ.

`\H`
`\capitalhungarumlaut`

  Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in ő.

`\i`

  Produces a dotless i, as in ‘i’.

`\j`

  Produces a dotless j, as in ‘j’.

`\k`
`\capitalogonek`

  Produces a letter with ogonek, as in ‘ǫ’. Not available in the OT1 encoding.

`\r`
`\capitalring`

  Produces a ring accent, as in ‘o*’.

`\t`
`\capitaltie`
`\newtie`
`\capitalnewtie`

  Produces a tie-after accent, as in ‘oo[’. The `\newtie` form is centered in its box.

`\u`
`\capitalbreve`

  Produces a breve accent, as in ‘ŏ’.

`\underbar`

  Not exactly an accent, this produces a bar under the argument text. The argument is always processed in horizontal mode. The bar is always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing through descenders. See also `\underline` in Math miscellany. See also `\b` above.

`\v`
`\capitalcaron`

  Produces a háček (check, caron) accent, as in ‘ǒ’.

### 21.4 Non-English characters

Here are the basic LaTeX commands for inserting characters commonly used in languages other than English.

`\aa`
`\AA`

  å and Å.

`\ae`
`\AE`

  æ and Æ.

`\dh`
`\DH`

  Icelandic letter eth: ð and Ð.

`\dj`
`\DJ`

  Crossed d and D, a.k.a. capital and small letter d with stroke.

`\ij`
`\IJ`

  ij and IJ (except somewhat closer together than appears here).

`\l`
`\L`

  ł and Ł.

`\ng`
`\NG`

  Latin letter eng, also used in phonetics.

`\o`
`\O`

  ø and Ø.

`\oe`
`\OE`

  œ and Œ.

`\ss`
`\SS`

  ß and SS.

`\th`
`\TH`

  Icelandic letter thorn: þ and Þ.

### 21.5 `\rule`

Synopsis:

    \rule[raise]{width}{thickness}

The `\rule` command produces rules, that is, lines or rectangles. The arguments are:

raise

  How high to raise the rule (optional).

width

  The length of the rule (mandatory).

thickness

  The thickness of the rule (mandatory).

### 21.6 `\today`

The `\today` command produces today’s date, in the format ‘`month dd, yyyy`’; for example, ‘July 4, 1976’. It uses the predefined counters `\day`, `\month`, and `\year` (see \day \month \year) to do this. It is not updated as the program runs.

The `datetime` package, among others, can produce a wide variety of other date formats.

## 22 Splitting the input

A large document requires a lot of input. Rather than putting the whole input in a single large file, it’s more efficient to split it into several smaller ones. Regardless of how many separate files you use, there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type when you run LaTeX.

See filecontents, for an environment that allows bundling an external file to be created with the main document.

### 22.1 `\include`

Synopsis:

    \include{file}

If no `\includeonly` command is present, the `\include` command executes `\clearpage` to start a new page (see \clearpage), then reads file, then does another `\clearpage`.

Given an `\includeonly` command, the `\include` actions are only run if file is listed as an argument to `\includeonly`. See the next section.

The `\include` command may not appear in the preamble or in a file read by another `\include` command.

### 22.2 \`includeonly`

Synopsis:

    \includeonly{file1,file2,...}

The `\includeonly` command controls which files will be read by subsequent `\include` commands. The list of filenames is comma-separated. Each file must exactly match a filename specified in a `\include` command for the selection to be effective.

This command can only appear in the preamble.

### 22.3 `\input`

Synopsis:

    \input{file}

The `\input` command causes the specified file to be read and processed, as if its contents had been inserted in the current file at that point.

If file does not end in ‘`.tex`’ (e.g., ‘`foo`’ or ‘`foo.bar`’), it is first tried with that extension (‘`foo.tex`’ or ‘`foo.bar.tex`’). If that is not found, the original file is tried (‘`foo`’ or ‘`foo.bar`’).

## 23 Front/back matter

### 23.1 Tables of contents

A table of contents is produced with the `\tableofcontents` command. You put the command right where you want the table of contents to go; LaTeX does the rest for you. A previous run must have generated a `.toc` file.

The `\tableofcontents` command produces a heading, but it does not automatically start a new page. If you want a new page after the table of contents, write a `\newpage` command after the `\tableofcontents` command.

The analogous commands `\listoffigures` and `\listoftables` produce a list of figures and a list of tables (from `.lof` and `.lot` files), respectively. Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents.

The command `\nofiles` overrides these commands, and prevents any of these lists from being generated.

#### 23.1.1 `\addcontentsline`

The `\addcontentsline`{ext}{unit}{text} command adds an entry to the specified list or table where:

ext

  The extension of the file on which information is to be written, typically one of: `toc` (table of contents), `lof` (list of figures), or `lot` (list of tables).

unit

  The name of the sectional unit being added, typically one of the following, matching the value of the ext argument:

  `toc`

    The name of the sectional unit: `part`, `chapter`, `section`, `subsection`, `subsubsection`.

  `lof`

    For the list of figures.

  `lot`

    For the list of tables.

entry

  The text of the entry.

What is written to the `.ext` file is the command `\contentsline{unit}{name}`.

#### 23.1.2 `\addtocontents`

The `\addtocontents`{ext}{text} command adds text (or formatting commands) directly to the `.ext` file that generates the table of contents or lists of figures or tables.

ext

  The extension of the file on which information is to be written, typically one of: `toc` (table of contents), `lof` (list of figures), or `lot` (list of tables).

text

  The text to be written.

### 23.2 Glossaries

The command `\makeglossary` enables creating glossaries.

The command `\glossary{text}` writes a glossary entry for text to an auxiliary file with the `.glo` extension.

Specifically, what gets written is the command `\glossaryentry{text}{pageno}`, where pageno is the current `\thepage` value.

The `glossary` package on CTAN provides support for fancier glossaries.

### 23.3 Indexes

The command `\makeindex` enables creating indexes. Put this in the preamble.

The command `\index{text}` writes an index entry for text to an auxiliary file with the `.idx` extension.

Specifically, what gets written is the command `\indexentry{text}{pageno}`, where pageno is the current `\thepage` value.

To generate a index entry for ‘bar’ that says ‘See foo’, use a vertical bar: `\index{bar|see{foo}}`. Use `seealso` instead of `see` to make a ‘See also’ entry.

The text ‘See’ is defined by the macro `\seename`, and ‘See also’ by the macro `\alsoname`. These can be redefined for other languages.

The generated `.idx` file is then sorted with an external command, usually either `makeindex` (http://mirror.ctan.org/indexing/makeindex) or (the multi-lingual) `xindy` (http://xindy.sourceforge.net). This results in a `.ind` file, which can then be read to typeset the index.

The index is usually generated with the `\printindex` command. This is defined in the `makeidx` package, so `\usepackage{makeidx}` needs to be in the preamble.

The rubber length `\indexspace` is inserted before each new letter in the printed index; its default value is ‘`10pt plus5pt minus3pt`’.

The `showidx` package causes each index entries to be shown in the margin on the page where the entry appears. This can help in preparing the index.

The `multind` package supports multiple indexes. See also the TeX FAQ entry on this topic, http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=multind.

## 24 Letters

Synopsis:

    \documentclass{letter}
    \address{sender address}
    \signature{sender name}
    \begin{document}
    \begin{letter}{recipient address}
    \opening{salutation}
      letter body
    \closing{closing text}
    \end{letter}
      ...  more letters ...
    \end{document}

Produce one or more letters.

Each letter is in a separate `letter` environment, whose argument recipient address often contains multiple lines separated with a double backslash (`\\`). For example, you might have:

     \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith \\
          2345 Princess St. \\
          Edinburgh, EH1 1AA}
       ...
     \end{letter}

The start of the `letter` environment resets the page number to 1, and the footnote number to 1 also.

The sender address and sender name are common to all of the letters, whether there is one or more, so these are best put in the preamble. As with the recipient address, often sender address contains multiple lines separated by a double backslash (`\\`). LaTeX will put the sender name under the closing, after a vertical space for the traditional hand-written signature; it also can contain multiple lines.

Each letter environment begins with a required `\opening` command such as `\opening{Dear Madam or Sir:}`. The letter body text is ordinary LaTeX so it can contain everything from from enumerated lists to displayed math, except that commands such as `\chapter` that make no sense in a letter are turned off. Each letter environment typically ends with a `\closing` command such as `\closing{Yours,}`.

Additional material may come after the `\closing`. You can say who is receiving a copy of the letter with a command like `\cc{the Boss \\ the Boss's Boss}`. There’s a similar `\encl` command for a list of enclosures. And, you can add a postscript with `\ps`.

LaTeX’s default is to indent the signature and the `\closing` above it by a length of `\longindentation`. By default this is `0.5\textwidth`. To make them flush left, put `\setlength{\longindentation}{0em}` in your preamble.

To set a fixed date use something like `\renewcommand{\today}{2015-Oct-12}`. If put in your preamble then it will apply to all the letters.

This example shows only one `letter` environment. The three lines marked as optional are typically omitted.

    \documentclass{letter}
    \address{Sender's street \\ Sender's town}
    \signature{Sender's name \\ Sender's title}
    % optional: \location{Mailbox 13}
    % optional: \telephone{(102) 555-0101}
    \begin{document}
    \begin{letter}{Recipient's name \\ Recipient's address}
    \opening{Sir:}
    % optional: \thispagestyle{firstpage}
    I am not interested in entering a business arrangement with you.
    \closing{Your most humble, etc.,}
    \end{letter}
    \end{document}

These commands are used with the `letter` class.

### 24.1 `\address`

Synopsis:

    \address{senders address}

Specifies the return address as it appears on the letter and on the envelope. Separate multiple lines in senders address with a double backslash `\\`.

Because it can apply to multiple letters this declaration is often put in the preamble. However, it can go anywhere, including inside an individual `letter` environment.

This command is optional: without the `\address` declaration the letter is formatted with some blank space on top, for copying onto pre-printed letterhead paper. (See Overview, for details on your local implementation.) With the `\address` declaration, it is formatted as a personal letter.

Here is an example.

    \address{Stephen Maturin \\
             The Grapes of the Savoy}

### 24.2 `\cc`

Synopsis:

    \cc{first name \\
        .. }

Produce a list of names to which copies of the letter were sent. This command is optional. If it appears then typically it comes after `\closing`. Separate multiple lines with a double backslash `\\`.

    \cc{President \\
        Vice President}

### 24.3 `\closing`

Synopsis:

    \closing{text}

Usually at the end of a letter, above the handwritten signature, there is a `\closing` (although this command is optional). For example,

    \closing{Regards,}

### 24.4 `\encl`

Synopsis:

    \encl{first enclosed object \\
          .. }

Produce a list of things included with the letter. This command is optional; when it is used, it typically is put after `\closing`. Separate multiple lines with a double backslash `\\`.

    \encl{License \\
           Passport }

### 24.5 `\location`

Synopsis:

    \location{text}

The text appears centered at the bottom of the each page. It only appears if the page style is `firstpage`.

### 24.6 `\makelabels`

Synopsis:

    \makelabels

Create a sheet of address labels from the recipient addresses, one for each letter. This sheet will be output before the letters, with the idea that you can copy it to a sheet of peel-off labels. This command goes in the preamble.

Customize the labels by redefining the commands `\startlabels`, `\mlabel`, and `\returnaddress` in the preamble. The command `\startlabels` sets the width, height, number of columns, etc., of the page onto which the labels are printed. The command `\mlabel{sender address}{recipient address}` produces the two labels (or one, if you choose to ignore the sender address). The sender address is the value returned by the macro `\returnaddress` while recipient address is the value passed in the argument to the `letter` environment. By default `\mlabel` ignores the first argument, the sender address.

### 24.7 `\name`

Synopsis:

    \name{name}

Sender’s name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return address.

### 24.8 `\opening`

Synopsis:

    \opening{text}

This command is required. It starts a letter, following the `\begin{letter}{..}`. The mandatory argument text is the text that starts your letter. For instance:

    \opening{Dear John:}

### 24.9 `\ps`

Synopsis:

    \ps{text}

Add a postscript. This command is optional and usually is used after `\closing`.

    \ps{P.S.  After you have read this letter, burn it. Or eat it.}

### 24.10 `\signature`

Synopsis:

    \signature{first line \\
                .. }

The sender’s name. This command is optional, although its inclusion is usual.

The argument text appears at the end of the letter, after the closing and after a vertical space for the traditional hand-written signature. Separate multiple lines with a double backslash `\\`. For example:

    \signature{J Fred Muggs \\
               White House}

LaTeX’s default for the vertical space from the `\closing` text down to the `\signature` text is `6\medskipamount`, which is six times 0.7em.

This command is usually in the preamble, to apply to all the letters in the document. To have it apply to one letter only, put it inside a `letter` environment and before the `\closing`.

You can include a graphic in the signature, for instance with `\signature{\vspace{-6\medskipamount}\includegraphics{sig.png}\\ My name}` (this requires writing `\usepackage{graphicx}` in the preamble).

### 24.11 `\telephone`

Synopsis:

    \telephone{number}

The sender’s telephone number. This is typically in the preamble, where it applies to all letters. This only appears if the `firstpage` pagestyle is selected. If so, it appears on the lower right of the page.

## 25 Terminal input/output

### 25.1 `\typein[cmd]{msg}`

Synopsis:

    \typein[\cmd]{msg}

`\typein` prints msg on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If the optional \cmd argument is omitted, the typed input is processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the `\typein` command. If the \cmd argument is present, it must be a command name. This command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input.

### 25.2 `\typeout{msg}`

Synopsis:

    \typeout{msg}

Prints `msg` on the terminal and in the `log` file. Commands in `msg` that are defined with `\newcommand` or `\renewcommand` (among others) are replaced by their definitions before being printed.

LaTeX’s usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to `msg`. A `\space` command in `msg` causes a single space to be printed, independent of surrounding spaces. A `^^J` in `msg` prints a newline.

## 26 Command line

The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; TeX uses `.tex` as a default file extension. If you omit the input file entirely, TeX accepts input from the terminal. You can also specify arbitrary LaTeX input by starting with a backslash. For example, this processes `foo.tex` without pausing after every error:

    latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex'

With many, but not all, implementations, command-line options can also be specified in the usual Unix way, starting with ‘`-`’ or ‘`--`’. For a list of those options, try ‘`latex --help`’.

If LaTeX stops in the middle of the document and gives you a ‘`*`’ prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type `\stop` (and return) and it will prematurely end the document.

See TeX engines, for other system commands invoking LaTeX.

## Appendix A Document templates

Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will be useful. Additional template resources are listed at http://tug.org/interest.html#latextemplates.

### A.1 `beamer` template

The `beamer` class creates presentation slides. It has a vast array of features, but here is a basic template:

    \documentclass{beamer}

    \title{Beamer Class template}
    \author{Alex Author}
    \date{July 31, 2007}

    \begin{document}

    \maketitle

    % without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors.
    \begin{frame}[fragile]
     \frametitle{First Slide}

    \begin{verbatim}
      This is \verbatim!
    \end{verbatim}

    \end{frame}

    \end{document}

One web resource for this: http://robjhyndman.com/hyndsight/beamer/.

### A.2 `book` template

    \documentclass{book}
    \title{Book Class Template}
    \author{Alex Author}

    \begin{document}
    \maketitle

    \chapter{First}
    Some text.

    \chapter{Second}
    Some other text.

    \section{A subtopic}
    The end.
    \end{document}

### A.3 `tugboat` template

TUGboat is the journal of the TeX Users Group, http://tug.org/TUGboat.

    \documentclass{ltugboat}
    \usepackage{graphicx}
    \usepackage{ifpdf}
    \ifpdf
    \usepackage[breaklinks,hidelinks]{hyperref}
    \else
    \usepackage{url}
    \fi

    \title{Example \TUB\ article}

    % repeat info for each author.
    \author{First Last}
    \address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country}
    \netaddress{user (at) example dot org}
    \personalURL{http://example.org/~user/}

    \begin{document}

    \maketitle

    \begin{abstract}
    This is an example article for \TUB{}.
    \end{abstract}

    \section{Introduction}

    This is an example article for \TUB, from
    \url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}.

    We recommend the \texttt{graphicx} package for image inclusions, and the
    \texttt{hyperref} package for active urls in the \acro{PDF} output.
    Nowadays \TUB\ is produced using \acro{PDF} files exclusively.

    The \texttt{ltugboat} class provides these abbreviations and many more:

    % verbatim blocks are often better in \small
    \begin{verbatim}[\small]
    \AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW
    \BibTeX \CTAN \DTD \HTML
    \ISBN \ISSN \LaTeXe
    \Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \PCTeX \pcTeX
    \PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS
    \SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP
    \TUB \TUG \tug
    \UG \UNIX \VAX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE

    \Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag
    \careof \thinskip

    \acro{FRED} -> {\small[er] fred}  % please use!
    \cs{fred}   -> \fred
    \env{fred}  -> \begin{fred}
    \meta{fred} -> <fred>
    \nth{n}     -> 1st, 2nd, ...
    \sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4
    \booktitle{Book of Fred}
    \end{verbatim}

    For more information, see the ltubguid document at:
    \url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat}
    (we recommend using \verb|mirror.ctan.org| for \CTAN\ references).

    Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions.

    \bibliographystyle{plain}  % we recommend the plain bibliography style
    \nocite{book-minimal}      % just making the bibliography non-empty
    \bibliography{xampl}       % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX

    \makesignature
    \end{document}

## Concept Index

Jump to: | * . ` A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X

| Index Entry |  | Section

* |  |
| ‘`*`’ prompt: |  | Command line
| `*`-form of sectioning commands: |  | Sectioning

. |  |
| `.glo` file: |  | Glossaries
| `.idx` file: |  | Indexes
| `.ind` file: |  | Indexes

` |  |
| ‘see’ and ‘see also’ index entries: |  | Indexes

A |  |
| abstracts: |  | abstract
| accents: |  | Accents
| accents, mathematical: |  | Math accents
| accessing any character of a font: |  | Reserved characters
| acute accent: |  | Accents
| acute accent, math: |  | Math accents
| additional packages, loading: |  | Document class options
| ae ligature: |  | Non-English characters
| align environment, from `amsmath`: |  | eqnarray
| aligning equations: |  | eqnarray
| alignment via tabbing: |  | tabbing
| amsmath package, replacing `eqnarray`: |  | eqnarray
| appendix, creating: |  | Sectioning
| aring: |  | Non-English characters
| arrays, math: |  | array
| arrow, left, in text: |  | Text symbols
| arrow, right, in text: |  | Text symbols
| ascender height: |  | Text symbols
| ASCII circumflex, in text: |  | Text symbols
| ASCII tilde, in text: |  | Text symbols
| asterisk, centered, in text: |  | Text symbols
| at clause, in font definitions: |  | \newfont
| author, for titlepage: |  | \maketitle
| auxiliary file: |  | Output files

B |  |
| `babel` package: |  | Accents
| backslash, in text: |  | Text symbols
| bar, double vertical, in text: |  | Text symbols
| bar, vertical, in text: |  | Text symbols
| bar-over accent: |  | Accents
| bar-over accent, math: |  | Math accents
| bar-under accent: |  | Accents
| basics of LaTeX: |  | Overview
| `beamer` template and class: |  | beamer template
| beginning of document hook: |  | \AtBeginDocument
| bibliography format, open: |  | Document class options
| bibliography, creating (automatically): |  | Using BibTeX
| bibliography, creating (manually): |  | thebibliography
| bibTeX, using: |  | Using BibTeX
| big circle symbols, in text: |  | Text symbols
| Big point: |  | Units of length
| black boxes, omitting: |  | Document class options
| bold font: |  | Font styles
| bold math: |  | Font styles
| bold typewriter, avoiding: |  | description
| box, allocating new: |  | \newsavebox
| boxes: |  | Boxes
| brace, left, in text: |  | Text symbols
| brace, right, in text: |  | Text symbols
| breaking lines: |  | Line breaking
| breaking pages: |  | Page breaking
| breve accent: |  | Accents
| breve accent, math: |  | Math accents
| bug reporting: |  | About this document
| bullet symbol: |  | Math symbols
| bullet, in text: |  | Text symbols
| bulleted lists: |  | itemize

C |  |
| calligraphic letters for math: |  | Font styles
| cap height: |  | Text symbols
| caron accent: |  | Accents
| cc list, in letters: |  | \cc
| cedilla accent: |  | Accents
| centered asterisk, in text: |  | Text symbols
| centered equations: |  | Document class options
| centered period, in text: |  | Text symbols
| centering text, declaration for: |  | \centering
| centering text, environment for: |  | center
| Centimeter: |  | Units of length
| characters, accented: |  | Accents
| characters, non-English: |  | Non-English characters
| characters, reserved: |  | Reserved characters
| check accent: |  | Accents
| check accent, math: |  | Math accents
| Cicero: |  | Units of length
| circle symbol, big, in text: |  | Text symbols
| circled letter, in text: |  | Text symbols
| circumflex accent: |  | Accents
| circumflex accent, math: |  | Math accents
| circumflex, ASCII, in text: |  | Text symbols
| class options: |  | Document class options
| classes of documents: |  | Document classes
| closing letters: |  | \closing
| closing quote: |  | Text symbols
| code, typesetting: |  | verbatim
| command line: |  | Command line
| command syntax: |  | LaTeX command syntax
| commands, defining new ones: |  | \newcommand & \renewcommand
| commands, defining new ones: |  | \providecommand
| commands, redefining: |  | \newcommand & \renewcommand
| composite word mark, in text: |  | Text symbols
| computer programs, typesetting: |  | verbatim
| contents file: |  | Output files
| copyright symbol: |  | Text symbols
| counters, a list of: |  | Counters
| counters, defining new: |  | \newcounter
| counters, getting value of: |  | \value
| counters, printing: |  | \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol
| counters, setting: |  | \setcounter
| creating pictures: |  | picture
| creating tables: |  | table
| credit footnote: |  | \maketitle
| cross references: |  | Cross references
| cross references, resolving: |  | Output files
| cross referencing with page number: |  | \pageref
| cross referencing, symbolic: |  | \ref
| currency, dollar: |  | Text symbols
| currency, euro: |  | Text symbols

D |  |
| dagger, double, in text: |  | Text symbols
| dagger, in text: |  | Text symbols
| dagger, in text: |  | Text symbols
| date, for titlepage: |  | \maketitle
| date, today’s: |  | \today
| `datetime` package: |  | \today
| defining a new command: |  | \newcommand & \renewcommand
| defining a new command: |  | \providecommand
| defining new environments: |  | \newenvironment & \renewenvironment
| defining new fonts: |  | \newfont
| defining new theorems: |  | \newtheorem
| definitions: |  | Definitions
| description lists, creating: |  | description
| design size, in font definitions: |  | \newfont
| Didot point: |  | Units of length
| dieresis accent: |  | Accents
| discretionary multiplication: |  | Math miscellany
| displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation: |  | quotation and quote
| displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation: |  | quotation and quote
| document class options: |  | Document class options
| document class, defined: |  | Starting and ending
| document classes: |  | Document classes
| document templates: |  | Document templates
| dollar sign: |  | Text symbols
| dot accent: |  | Accents
| dot over accent, math: |  | Math accents
| dot-over accent: |  | Accents
| dot-under accent: |  | Accents
| dotless i: |  | Accents
| dotless i, math: |  | Math accents
| dotless j: |  | Accents
| dotless j, math: |  | Math accents
| double angle quotation marks: |  | Text symbols
| double dagger, in text: |  | Text symbols
| double dagger, in text: |  | Text symbols
| double dot accent, math: |  | Math accents
| double guillemets: |  | Text symbols
| double left quote: |  | Text symbols
| double low-9 quotation mark: |  | Text symbols
| double quote, straight base: |  | Text symbols
| double right quote: |  | Text symbols
| double spacing: |  | Low-level font commands
| double vertical bar, in text: |  | Text symbols

E |  |
| e-dash: |  | Text symbols
| e-TeX: |  | TeX engines
| ellipsis: |  | Text symbols
| em: |  | Units of length
| em-dash: |  | Text symbols
| em-dash, three-quarters: |  | Text symbols
| em-dash, two-thirds: |  | Text symbols
| emphasis: |  | Font styles
| enclosure list: |  | \encl
| end of document hook: |  | \AtEndDocument
| ending and starting: |  | Starting and ending
| engines, TeX: |  | TeX engines
| enlarge current page: |  | \enlargethispage
| environment: |  | Starting and ending
| environment, theorem-like: |  | \newtheorem
| environments: |  | Environments
| environments, defining: |  | \newenvironment & \renewenvironment
| equation number, cross referencing: |  | \ref
| equation numbers, left vs. right: |  | Document class options
| equation numbers, omitting: |  | eqnarray
| equations, aligning: |  | eqnarray
| equations, environment for: |  | equation
| equations, flush left vs. centered: |  | Document class options
| es-zet German letter: |  | Non-English characters
| eth, Icelandic letter: |  | Non-English characters
| euro symbol: |  | Text symbols
| ex: |  | Units of length
| exclamation point, upside-down: |  | Text symbols
| exponent: |  | Subscripts & superscripts
| external files, writing: |  | filecontents

F |  |
| families, of fonts: |  | Low-level font commands
| feminine ordinal symbol: |  | Text symbols
| figure number, cross referencing: |  | \ref
| figures, footnotes in: |  | minipage
| figures, inserting: |  | figure
| fixed-width font: |  | Font styles
| `float` package: |  | Floats
| float page: |  | Floats
| flush left equations: |  | Document class options
| flushing floats and starting a page: |  | \clearpage
| font catalogue: |  | Low-level font commands
| font commands, low-level: |  | Low-level font commands
| font size: |  | Low-level font commands
| font sizes: |  | Font sizes
| font styles: |  | Font styles
| fonts: |  | Fonts
| fonts, new commands for: |  | \newfont
| footer style: |  | \pagestyle
| footer, parameters for: |  | Page layout parameters
| footnote number, cross referencing: |  | \ref
| footnote parameters: |  | Footnote parameters
| footnotes in figures: |  | minipage
| footnotes, creating: |  | Footnotes
| Footnotes, in a minipage: |  | \footnote
| Footnotes, in a table: |  | Footnotes in a table
| footnotes, symbols instead of numbers: |  | \footnote
| formulas, environment for: |  | equation
| formulas, math: |  | Math formulas
| forward references, resolving: |  | Output files
| fragile commands: |  | \protect
| French quotation marks: |  | Text symbols
| functions, math: |  | Math functions

G |  |
| `geometry` package: |  | Document class options
| global options: |  | Document class options
| global options: |  | Document class options
| glossaries: |  | Glossaries
| glossary package: |  | Glossaries
| glue register, plain TeX: |  | \newlength
| graphics packages: |  | \line
| grave accent: |  | Accents
| grave accent, math: |  | Math accents
| greater than symbol, in text: |  | Text symbols
| greek letters: |  | Math symbols

H |  |
| háček accent, math: |  | Math accents
| hacek accent: |  | Accents
| hat accent: |  | Accents
| hat accent, math: |  | Math accents
| header style: |  | \pagestyle
| header, parameters for: |  | Page layout parameters
| hello, world: |  | Starting and ending
| here, putting floats: |  | Floats
| hungarian umlaut accent: |  | Accents
| hyphenation, defining: |  | \hyphenation
| hyphenation, forcing: |  | \- (hyphenation)
| hyphenation, preventing: |  | \mbox

I |  |
| Icelandic eth: |  | Non-English characters
| Icelandic thorn: |  | Non-English characters
| ij letter, Dutch: |  | Non-English characters
| implementations of TeX: |  | TeX engines
| in-line formulas: |  | math
| indent, forcing: |  | \indent
| indent, suppressing: |  | \noindent
| indentation of paragraphs, in minipage: |  | minipage
| index entries, ‘see’ and ‘see also’: |  | Indexes
| indexes: |  | Indexes
| infinite horizontal stretch: |  | \hfill
| infinite vertical stretch: |  | \vfill
| input file: |  | Splitting the input
| input/output, to terminal: |  | Terminal input/output
| inserting figures: |  | figure
| insertions of special characters: |  | Special insertions
| italic correction: |  | \/
| italic font: |  | Font styles

J |  |
| justification, ragged left: |  | \raggedleft
| justification, ragged right: |  | \raggedright

K |  |
| Knuth, Donald E.: |  | Overview

L |  |
| labelled lists, creating: |  | description
| Lamport TeX: |  | Overview
| Lamport, Leslie: |  | Overview
| landscape orientation: |  | Document class options
| LaTeX logo: |  | Text symbols
| LaTeX overview: |  | Overview
| LaTeX Project team: |  | About this document
| LaTeX vs. LaTeX2e: |  | About this document
| LaTeX2e logo: |  | Text symbols
| layout commands: |  | Layout
| layout, page parameters for: |  | Page layout parameters
| left angle quotation marks: |  | Text symbols
| left arrow, in text: |  | Text symbols
| left brace, in text: |  | Text symbols
| left quote: |  | Text symbols
| left quote, double: |  | Text symbols
| left quote, single: |  | Text symbols
| left-hand equation numbers: |  | Document class options
| left-justifying text: |  | \raggedright
| left-justifying text, environment for: |  | flushleft
| left-to-right mode: |  | Modes
| lengths, adding to: |  | \addtolength
| lengths, allocating new: |  | \newlength
| lengths, defining and using: |  | Lengths
| lengths, predefined: |  | Predefined lengths
| lengths, setting: |  | \setlength
| less than symbol, in text: |  | Text symbols
| letters, accented: |  | Accents
| letters, ending: |  | \closing
| letters, non-English: |  | Non-English characters
| letters, starting: |  | \opening
| letters, writing: |  | Letters
| line break, forcing: |  | \\
| line breaking: |  | Line breaking
| line breaks, forcing: |  | \linebreak & \nolinebreak
| line breaks, preventing: |  | \linebreak & \nolinebreak
| lines in tables: |  | tabular
| lining numerals: |  | Font styles
| lining text up in tables: |  | tabular
| lining text up using tab stops: |  | tabbing
| list items, specifying counter: |  | \usecounter
| list of figures file: |  | Output files
| list of tables file: |  | Output files
| lists of items: |  | itemize
| lists of items, generic: |  | list
| lists of items, numbered: |  | enumerate
| loading additional packages: |  | Document class options
| log file: |  | Output files
| logo, LaTeX: |  | Text symbols
| logo, LaTeX2e: |  | Text symbols
| logo, TeX: |  | Text symbols
| low-9 quotation marks, single and double: |  | Text symbols
| low-level font commands: |  | Low-level font commands
| LR mode: |  | Modes
| `ltugboat` class: |  | tugboat template
| LuaTeX: |  | TeX engines

M |  |
| m-width: |  | Units of length
| macro package, LaTeX as: |  | Overview
| macron accent: |  | Accents
| macron accent, math: |  | Math accents
| Madsen, Lars: |  | eqnarray
| `makeidx` package: |  | Indexes
| `makeindex` program: |  | Indexes
| making a title page: |  | titlepage
| making paragraphs: |  | Making paragraphs
| marginal notes: |  | Marginal notes
| masculine ordinal symbol: |  | Text symbols
| math accents: |  | Math accents
| math formulas: |  | Math formulas
| math functions: |  | Math functions
| math miscellany: |  | Math miscellany
| math mode: |  | Modes
| math mode, entering: |  | Math formulas
| math mode, spacing: |  | Spacing in math mode
| math symbols: |  | Math symbols
| math, bold: |  | Font styles
| Millimeter: |  | Units of length
| minipage, creating a: |  | minipage
| modes: |  | Modes
| monospace font: |  | Font styles
| moving arguments: |  | \protect
| mpfootnote counter: |  | \footnote
| mu, math unit: |  | Units of length
| multicolumn text: |  | \twocolumn
| multilingual support: |  | Accents
| `multind` package: |  | Indexes
| multiplication symbol, discretionary line break: |  | Math miscellany

N |  |
| nested `\include`, not allowed: |  | \include
| new commands, defining: |  | \newcommand & \renewcommand
| new commands, defining: |  | \providecommand
| new line, output as input: |  | \obeycr & \restorecr
| new line, starting: |  | \\
| new line, starting (paragraph mode): |  | \newline
| new page, starting: |  | \newpage
| non-English characters: |  | Non-English characters
| notes in the margin: |  | Marginal notes
| null delimiter: |  | Math miscellany
| numbered items, specifying counter: |  | \usecounter
| numerals, old-style: |  | Font styles

O |  |
| oblique font: |  | Font styles
| oe ligature: |  | Non-English characters
| ogonek: |  | Accents
| old-style numerals: |  | Font styles
| one-column output: |  | \onecolumn
| opening quote: |  | Text symbols
| OpenType fonts: |  | TeX engines
| options, document class: |  | Document class options
| options, global: |  | Document class options
| ordinals, feminine and masculine: |  | Text symbols
| oslash: |  | Non-English characters
| overbar accent: |  | Accents
| overdot accent, math: |  | Math accents
| overview of LaTeX: |  | Overview

P |  |
| packages, loading additional: |  | Document class options
| page break, forcing: |  | \pagebreak & \nopagebreak
| page break, preventing: |  | \pagebreak & \nopagebreak
| page breaking: |  | Page breaking
| page layout parameters: |  | Page layout parameters
| page number, cross referencing: |  | \pageref
| page numbering style: |  | \pagenumbering
| page styles: |  | Page styles
| paragraph indentation, in minipage: |  | minipage
| paragraph indentations in quoted text: |  | quotation and quote
| paragraph indentations in quoted text, omitting: |  | quotation and quote
| paragraph mode: |  | Modes
| paragraph symbol: |  | Text symbols
| paragraphs: |  | Making paragraphs
| parameters, for footnotes: |  | Footnote parameters
| parameters, page layout: |  | Page layout parameters
| pdfTeX: |  | Output files
| pdfTeX engine: |  | TeX engines
| period, centered, in text: |  | Text symbols
| pica: |  | Units of length
| `pict2e` package: |  | \line
| pictures, creating: |  | picture
| pilcrow: |  | Text symbols
| placement of floats: |  | Floats
| poetry, an environment for: |  | verse
| Point: |  | Units of length
| polish l: |  | Non-English characters
| portrait orientation: |  | Document class options
| position, in picture: |  | picture
| postscript, in letters: |  | \ps
| pounds symbol: |  | Text symbols
| preamble, defined: |  | Starting and ending
| predefined lengths: |  | Predefined lengths
| prompt, ‘`*`’: |  | Command line
| pronunciation: |  | Overview

Q |  |
| quad: |  | Spacing in math mode
| question mark, upside-down: |  | Text symbols
| quotation marks, French: |  | Text symbols
| quote, straight base: |  | Text symbols
| quoted text with paragraph indentation, displaying: |  | quotation and quote
| quoted text without paragraph indentation, displaying: |  | quotation and quote

R |  |
| ragged left text: |  | \raggedleft
| ragged left text, environment for: |  | flushright
| ragged right text: |  | \raggedright
| ragged right text, environment for: |  | flushleft
| redefining environments: |  | \newenvironment & \renewenvironment
| references, resolving forward: |  | Output files
| registered symbol: |  | Text symbols
| remarks in the margin: |  | Marginal notes
| reporting bugs: |  | About this document
| reserved characters: |  | Reserved characters
| right angle quotation marks: |  | Text symbols
| right arrow, in text: |  | Text symbols
| right brace, in text: |  | Text symbols
| right quote: |  | Text symbols
| right quote, double: |  | Text symbols
| right quote, single: |  | Text symbols
| right-hand equation numbers: |  | Document class options
| right-justifying text: |  | \raggedleft
| right-justifying text, environment for: |  | flushright
| ring accent: |  | Accents
| ring accent, math: |  | Math accents
| robust commands: |  | \protect
| roman font: |  | Font styles
| rubber lengths, defining new: |  | \newlength
| running header and footer: |  | Page layout parameters
| running header and footer style: |  | \pagestyle

S |  |
| sans serif font: |  | Font styles
| Scaled point: |  | Units of length
| script letters for math: |  | Font styles
| section number, cross referencing: |  | \ref
| section numbers, printing: |  | Sectioning
| section symbol: |  | Text symbols
| sectioning commands: |  | Sectioning
| series, of fonts: |  | Low-level font commands
| `setspace` package: |  | Low-level font commands
| setting counters: |  | \setcounter
| shapes, of fonts: |  | Low-level font commands
| sharp S letters: |  | Non-English characters
| `showidx` package: |  | Indexes
| simulating typed text: |  | verbatim
| single angle quotation marks: |  | Text symbols
| single guillemets: |  | Text symbols
| single left quote: |  | Text symbols
| single low-9 quotation mark: |  | Text symbols
| single right quote: |  | Text symbols
| sizes of text: |  | Font sizes
| skip register, plain TeX: |  | \newlength
| slanted font: |  | Font styles
| small caps font: |  | Font styles
| space, inserting vertical: |  | \addvspace
| space, vertical: |  | \vspace
| spaces: |  | Spaces
| spacing within math mode: |  | Spacing in math mode
| spacing, intersentence: |  | \frenchspacing
| Spanish ordinals, feminine and masculine: |  | Text symbols
| special characters: |  | Non-English characters
| special insertions: |  | Special insertions
| specifier, float placement: |  | Floats
| splitting the input file: |  | Splitting the input
| starting a new page: |  | \newpage
| starting a new page and clearing floats: |  | \clearpage
| starting and ending: |  | Starting and ending
| starting on a right-hand page: |  | \cleardoublepage
| sterling symbol: |  | Text symbols
| straight double quote, base: |  | Text symbols
| straight quote, base: |  | Text symbols
| stretch, infinite horizontal: |  | \hfill
| stretch, infinite vertical: |  | \vfill
| stretch, omitting vertical: |  | \raggedbottom
| styles of text: |  | Font styles
| styles, page: |  | Page styles
| subscript: |  | Subscripts & superscripts
| superscript: |  | Subscripts & superscripts
| symbols, math: |  | Math symbols
| symbols, text: |  | Text symbols

T |  |
| tab stops, using: |  | tabbing
| table of contents entry, manually adding: |  | \addcontentsline
| table of contents file: |  | Output files
| table of contents, creating: |  | Tables of contents
| tables, creating: |  | table
| template, `beamer`: |  | beamer template
| template, `book`: |  | book template
| template, TUGboat: |  | tugboat template
| templates, document: |  | Document templates
| terminal input/output: |  | Terminal input/output
| TeX logo: |  | Text symbols
| text symbols: |  | Text symbols
| `textcomp` package: |  | Font styles
| thanks, for titlepage: |  | \maketitle
| theorem-like environment: |  | \newtheorem
| theorems, defining: |  | \newtheorem
| theorems, typesetting: |  | theorem
| thorn, Icelandic letter: |  | Non-English characters
| three-quarters em-dash: |  | Text symbols
| tie-after accent: |  | Accents
| tilde accent: |  | Accents
| tilde accent, math: |  | Math accents
| tilde, ASCII, in text: |  | Text symbols
| title page, separate or run-in: |  | Document class options
| title pages, creating: |  | titlepage
| title, for titlepage: |  | \maketitle
| titles, making: |  | \maketitle
| trademark symbol: |  | Text symbols
| transcript file: |  | Output files
| TrueType fonts: |  | TeX engines
| TUGboat template: |  | tugboat template
| two-column output: |  | \twocolumn
| two-thirds em-dash: |  | Text symbols
| type styles: |  | Font styles
| typed text, simulating: |  | verbatim
| typeface sizes: |  | Font sizes
| typefaces: |  | Fonts
| typewriter font: |  | Font styles
| typewriter labels in lists: |  | description

U |  |
| umlaut accent: |  | Accents
| underbar: |  | Accents
| underscore, in text: |  | Text symbols
| Unicode input, native: |  | TeX engines
| units, of length: |  | Units of length
| unofficial nature of this manual: |  | About this document
| unordered lists: |  | itemize
| using BibTeX: |  | Using BibTeX
| UTF-8: |  | TeX engines

V |  |
| variables, a list of: |  | Counters
| vector symbol, math: |  | Math accents
| verbatim text: |  | verbatim
| verbatim text, inline: |  | \verb
| vertical bar, double, in text: |  | Text symbols
| vertical bar, in text: |  | Text symbols
| vertical space: |  | \addvspace
| vertical space: |  | \vspace
| vertical space before paragraphs: |  | \parskip
| visible space: |  | \verb
| visible space symbol, in text: |  | Text symbols

W |  |
| weights, of fonts: |  | Low-level font commands
| white space: |  | Spaces
| wide hat accent, math: |  | Math accents
| wide tilde accent, math: |  | Math accents
| widths, of fonts: |  | Low-level font commands
| writing external files: |  | filecontents
| writing letters: |  | Letters

X |  |
| x-height: |  | Units of length
| XeTeX: |  | TeX engines
| `xindy` program: |  | Indexes

Jump to: | * . ` A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X

## Command Index

Jump to: | $ & - . 1 [ \ ^ _ { A B C D E F H I L M N O P Q R S T U V X

| Index Entry |  | Section

$ |  |
| `$`: |  | Math formulas

& |  |
| `&`: |  | tabular

- |  |
| `--help command-line option`: |  | Command line

. |  |
| `.aux file`: |  | Output files
| `.dvi file`: |  | Output files
| `.fd file`: |  | \newfont
| `.lof file`: |  | Output files
| `.lof file`: |  | Tables of contents
| `.log file`: |  | Output files
| `.lot file`: |  | Output files
| `.lot file`: |  | Tables of contents
| `.pdf file`: |  | Output files
| `.tex, default extension`: |  | Command line
| `.toc file`: |  | Output files
| `.toc file`: |  | Tables of contents
| `.xdv file`: |  | TeX engines

1 |  |
| `10pt option`: |  | Document class options
| `11pt option`: |  | Document class options
| `12pt option`: |  | Document class options

[ |  |
| `[...] for optional arguments`: |  | LaTeX command syntax

\ |  |
| `\ character starting commands`: |  | LaTeX command syntax
| `\!`: |  | Spacing in math mode
| `\" (umlaut accent)`: |  | Accents
| `\#`: |  | Reserved characters
| `\$`: |  | Reserved characters
| `\%`: |  | Reserved characters
| `\&`: |  | Reserved characters
| `\' (acute accent)`: |  | Accents
| `\' (tabbing)`: |  | tabbing
| `\(`: |  | Math formulas
| `\(SPACE)`: |  | \(SPACE) and \@
| `\)`: |  | Math formulas
| `\*`: |  | Math miscellany
| `\+`: |  | tabbing
| `\,`: |  | Spacing in math mode
| `\-`: |  | tabbing
| `\- (hyphenation)`: |  | \- (hyphenation)
| `\. (dot-over accent)`: |  | Accents
| `\/`: |  | \/
| `\:`: |  | Spacing in math mode
| `\;`: |  | Spacing in math mode
| `\<`: |  | tabbing
| `\= (macron accent)`: |  | Accents
| `\= (tabbing)`: |  | tabbing
| `\>`: |  | tabbing
| `\>`: |  | Spacing in math mode
| `\> (tabbing)`: |  | tabbing
| `\@`: |  | \(SPACE) and \@
| `\@fnsymbol`: |  | \footnote
| `\a (tabbing)`: |  | tabbing
| `\a' (acute accent in tabbing)`: |  | tabbing
| `\a= (macron accent in tabbing)`: |  | tabbing
| `\aa (å)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\AA (Å)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\acute`: |  | Math accents
| `\addcontentsline{ext}{unit}{text}`: |  | \addcontentsline
| `\address`: |  | \address
| `\addtocontents{ext}{text}`: |  | \addtocontents
| `\addtocounter`: |  | \addtocounter
| `\addtolength`: |  | \addtolength
| `\addvspace`: |  | \addvspace
| `\ae (æ)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\AE (Æ)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\aleph`: |  | Math symbols
| `\alph`: |  | \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol
| `\Alph`: |  | \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol
| `\Alph example`: |  | enumerate
| `\alpha`: |  | Math symbols
| `\alsoname`: |  | Indexes
| `\amalg`: |  | Math symbols
| `\and for `\author``: |  | \maketitle
| `\angle`: |  | Math symbols
| `\appendix`: |  | Sectioning
| `\approx`: |  | Math symbols
| `\arabic`: |  | \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol
| `\arccos`: |  | Math functions
| `\arcsin`: |  | Math functions
| `\arctan`: |  | Math functions
| `\arg`: |  | Math functions
| `\arraycolsep`: |  | array
| `\arrayrulewidth`: |  | tabular
| `\arraystretch`: |  | tabular
| `\ast`: |  | Math symbols
| `\asymp`: |  | Math symbols
| `\AtBeginDocument`: |  | \AtBeginDocument
| `\AtEndDocument`: |  | \AtEndDocument
| `\author{name \and name2}`: |  | \maketitle
| `\a` (grave accent in tabbing)`: |  | tabbing
| `\b (bar-under accent)`: |  | Accents
| `\backslash`: |  | Math symbols
| `\backslash`: |  | Reserved characters
| `\bar`: |  | Math accents
| `\baselineskip`: |  | Low-level font commands
| `\baselinestretch`: |  | Low-level font commands
| `\begin`: |  | Environments
| `\beta`: |  | Math symbols
| `\bf`: |  | Font styles
| `\bfseries`: |  | Font styles
| `\bibitem`: |  | \bibitem
| `\bibliography`: |  | Using BibTeX
| `\bibliographystyle`: |  | Using BibTeX
| `\bigcap`: |  | Math symbols
| `\bigcirc`: |  | Math symbols
| `\bigcup`: |  | Math symbols
| `\bigodot`: |  | Math symbols
| `\bigoplus`: |  | Math symbols
| `\bigotimes`: |  | Math symbols
| `\bigskip`: |  | \bigskip \medskip \smallskip
| `\bigskipamount`: |  | \bigskip \medskip \smallskip
| `\bigsqcup`: |  | Math symbols
| `\bigtriangledown`: |  | Math symbols
| `\bigtriangleup`: |  | Math symbols
| `\biguplus`: |  | Math symbols
| `\bigvee`: |  | Math symbols
| `\bigwedge`: |  | Math symbols
| `\bmod`: |  | Math functions
| `\boldmath`: |  | Math formulas
| `\bot`: |  | Math symbols
| `\bottomfraction`: |  | Floats
| `\bottomfraction`: |  | Floats
| `\bowtie`: |  | Math symbols
| `\Box`: |  | Math symbols
| `\breve`: |  | Math accents
| `\bullet`: |  | Math symbols
| `\c (cedilla accent)`: |  | Accents
| `\cal`: |  | Font styles
| `\cap`: |  | Math symbols
| `\capitalacute`: |  | Accents
| `\capitalbreve`: |  | Accents
| `\capitalcaron`: |  | Accents
| `\capitalcedilla`: |  | Accents
| `\capitalcircumflex`: |  | Accents
| `\capitaldieresis`: |  | Accents
| `\capitaldotaccent`: |  | Accents
| `\capitalgrave`: |  | Accents
| `\capitalhungarumlaut`: |  | Accents
| `\capitalmacron`: |  | Accents
| `\capitalnewtie`: |  | Accents
| `\capitalogonek`: |  | Accents
| `\capitalring`: |  | Accents
| `\capitaltie`: |  | Accents
| `\capitaltilde`: |  | Accents
| `\caption`: |  | figure
| `\caption`: |  | table
| `\cc`: |  | \cc
| `\cdot`: |  | Math symbols
| `\cdots`: |  | Math miscellany
| `\centering`: |  | \centering
| `\chapter`: |  | Sectioning
| `\check`: |  | Math accents
| `\chi`: |  | Math symbols
| `\circ`: |  | Math symbols
| `\circle`: |  | \circle
| `\cite`: |  | \cite
| `\cleardoublepage`: |  | \cleardoublepage
| `\clearpage`: |  | \clearpage
| `\cline`: |  | \cline
| `\closing`: |  | \closing
| `\clubsuit`: |  | Math symbols
| `\columnsep`: |  | \twocolumn
| `\columnsep`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\columnsep`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\columnseprule`: |  | \twocolumn
| `\columnseprule`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\columnseprule`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\columnwidth`: |  | \twocolumn
| `\columnwidth`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\columnwidth`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\complement`: |  | Math symbols
| `\cong`: |  | Math symbols
| `\contentsline`: |  | \addcontentsline
| `\coprod`: |  | Math symbols
| `\copyright`: |  | Text symbols
| `\cos`: |  | Math functions
| `\cosh`: |  | Math functions
| `\cot`: |  | Math functions
| `\coth`: |  | Math functions
| `\csc`: |  | Math functions
| `\cup`: |  | Math symbols
| `\d (dot-under accent)`: |  | Accents
| `\dag`: |  | Text symbols
| `\dagger`: |  | Math symbols
| `\dashbox`: |  | \dashbox
| `\dashv`: |  | Math symbols
| `\date{text}`: |  | \maketitle
| `\day`: |  | \day \month \year
| `\dblfloatpagefraction`: |  | \twocolumn
| `\dblfloatsep`: |  | \twocolumn
| `\dbltextfloatsep`: |  | \twocolumn
| `\dbltopfraction`: |  | \twocolumn
| `\dbltopnumber`: |  | \twocolumn
| `\ddag`: |  | Text symbols
| `\ddagger`: |  | Math symbols
| `\ddot`: |  | Math accents
| `\ddots`: |  | Math miscellany
| `\deg`: |  | Math functions
| `\Delta`: |  | Math symbols
| `\delta`: |  | Math symbols
| `\depth`: |  | Predefined lengths
| `\det`: |  | Math functions
| `\dh (ð)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\DH (Ð)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\Diamond`: |  | Math symbols
| `\diamond`: |  | Math symbols
| `\diamondsuit`: |  | Math symbols
| `\dim`: |  | Math functions
| `\displaystyle`: |  | Math formulas
| `\div`: |  | Math symbols
| `\dj`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\DJ`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\documentclass`: |  | Document classes
| `\dot`: |  | Math accents
| `\doteq`: |  | Math symbols
| `\dotfill`: |  | \hrulefill \dotfill
| `\dots`: |  | Text symbols
| `\doublerulesep`: |  | tabular
| `\downarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\Downarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\ell`: |  | Math symbols
| `\emph`: |  | Font styles
| `\emptyset`: |  | Math symbols
| `\encl`: |  | \encl
| `\end`: |  | Environments
| `\enlargethispage`: |  | \enlargethispage
| `\enumi`: |  | enumerate
| `\enumii`: |  | enumerate
| `\enumiii`: |  | enumerate
| `\enumiv`: |  | enumerate
| `\epsilon`: |  | Math symbols
| `\equiv`: |  | Math symbols
| `\eta`: |  | Math symbols
| `\evensidemargin`: |  | Document class options
| `\evensidemargin`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\evensidemargin`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\exists`: |  | Math symbols
| `\exp`: |  | Math functions
| `\extracolsep`: |  | tabular
| `\fbox`: |  | \fbox and \framebox
| `\fboxrule`: |  | \framebox (picture)
| `\fboxrule`: |  | \fbox and \framebox
| `\fboxsep`: |  | \framebox (picture)
| `\fboxsep`: |  | \fbox and \framebox
| `\fill`: |  | \hfill
| `\flat`: |  | Math symbols
| `\floatpagefraction`: |  | Floats
| `\floatpagefraction`: |  | Floats
| `\floatsep`: |  | Floats
| `\floatsep`: |  | Floats
| `\flushbottom`: |  | \flushbottom
| `\fnsymbol`: |  | \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol
| `\fnsymbol, and footnotes`: |  | \footnote
| `\fontencoding`: |  | Low-level font commands
| `\fontfamily`: |  | Low-level font commands
| `\fontseries`: |  | Low-level font commands
| `\fontshape`: |  | Low-level font commands
| `\fontsize`: |  | Low-level font commands
| `\footnote`: |  | \footnote
| `\footnotemark`: |  | \footnotemark
| `\footnoterule`: |  | Footnote parameters
| `\footnotesep`: |  | Footnote parameters
| `\footnotesize`: |  | Font sizes
| `\footnotetext`: |  | \footnotetext
| `\footskip`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\footskip`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\forall`: |  | Math symbols
| `\frac`: |  | Math miscellany
| `\frac{num}{den}`: |  | Math miscellany
| `\frame`: |  | \frame
| `\framebox`: |  | \framebox (picture)
| `\framebox`: |  | \fbox and \framebox
| `\frenchspacing`: |  | \frenchspacing
| `\frown`: |  | Math symbols
| `\fussy`: |  | \fussy
| `\Gamma`: |  | Math symbols
| `\gamma`: |  | Math symbols
| `\gcd`: |  | Math functions
| `\ge`: |  | Math symbols
| `\geq`: |  | Math symbols
| `\gets`: |  | Math symbols
| `\gg`: |  | Math symbols
| `\glossary`: |  | Glossaries
| `\glossaryentry`: |  | Glossaries
| `\grave`: |  | Math accents
| `\guillemotleft («)`: |  | Text symbols
| `\guillemotright (»)`: |  | Text symbols
| `\guilsinglleft (‹)`: |  | Text symbols
| `\guilsinglright (›)`: |  | Text symbols
| `\H (Hungarian umlaut accent)`: |  | Accents
| `\hat`: |  | Math accents
| `\hbar`: |  | Math symbols
| `\headheight`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\headheight`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\headsep`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\headsep`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\heartsuit`: |  | Math symbols
| `\height`: |  | Predefined lengths
| `\hfill`: |  | \hfill
| `\hline`: |  | \hline
| `\hom`: |  | Math functions
| `\hookleftarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\hookrightarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\hrulefill`: |  | \hrulefill \dotfill
| `\hsize`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\hsize`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\hspace`: |  | \hspace
| `\huge`: |  | Font sizes
| `\Huge`: |  | Font sizes
| `\hyphenation`: |  | \hyphenation
| `\i (dotless i)`: |  | Accents
| `\iff`: |  | Math symbols
| `\ij (ij)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\IJ (IJ)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\Im`: |  | Math symbols
| `\imath`: |  | Math accents
| `\in`: |  | Math symbols
| `\include`: |  | \include
| `\includeonly`: |  | \includeonly
| `\indent`: |  | \indent
| `\index`: |  | Indexes
| `\indexentry`: |  | Indexes
| `\inf`: |  | Math functions
| `\infty`: |  | Math symbols
| `\input`: |  | \input
| `\int`: |  | Math symbols
| `\intextsep`: |  | Floats
| `\intextsep`: |  | Floats
| `\iota`: |  | Math symbols
| `\it`: |  | Font styles
| `\item`: |  | description
| `\item`: |  | description
| `\item`: |  | enumerate
| `\item`: |  | itemize
| `\itemindent`: |  | itemize
| `\itemsep`: |  | itemize
| `\itshape`: |  | Font styles
| `\j (dotless j)`: |  | Accents
| `\jmath`: |  | Math accents
| `\Join`: |  | Math symbols
| `\k (ogonek)`: |  | Accents
| `\kappa`: |  | Math symbols
| `\ker`: |  | Math functions
| `\kill`: |  | tabbing
| `\l (ł)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\L (Ł)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\label`: |  | \label
| `\labelenumi`: |  | enumerate
| `\labelenumii`: |  | enumerate
| `\labelenumiii`: |  | enumerate
| `\labelenumiv`: |  | enumerate
| `\labelitemi`: |  | itemize
| `\labelitemii`: |  | itemize
| `\labelitemiii`: |  | itemize
| `\labelitemiv`: |  | itemize
| `\labelsep`: |  | itemize
| `\labelwidth`: |  | itemize
| `\Lambda`: |  | Math symbols
| `\lambda`: |  | Math symbols
| `\land`: |  | Math symbols
| `\langle`: |  | Math symbols
| `\large`: |  | Font sizes
| `\Large`: |  | Font sizes
| `\LARGE`: |  | Font sizes
| `\LaTeX`: |  | Text symbols
| `\LaTeXe`: |  | Text symbols
| `\lbrace`: |  | Math symbols
| `\lbrack`: |  | Math symbols
| `\lceil`: |  | Math symbols
| `\ldots`: |  | Text symbols
| `\le`: |  | Math symbols
| `\leadsto`: |  | Math symbols
| `\left delim1 ... \right delim2`: |  | Math miscellany
| `\Leftarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\leftarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\lefteqn`: |  | eqnarray
| `\leftharpoondown`: |  | Math symbols
| `\leftharpoonup`: |  | Math symbols
| `\leftmargin`: |  | itemize
| `\leftmargini`: |  | itemize
| `\leftmarginii`: |  | itemize
| `\leftmarginiii`: |  | itemize
| `\leftmarginiv`: |  | itemize
| `\leftmarginv`: |  | itemize
| `\leftmarginvi`: |  | itemize
| `\Leftrightarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\leftrightarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\leq`: |  | Math symbols
| `\lfloor`: |  | Math symbols
| `\lg`: |  | Math functions
| `\lhd`: |  | Math symbols
| `\lim`: |  | Math functions
| `\liminf`: |  | Math functions
| `\limsup`: |  | Math functions
| `\line`: |  | \line
| `\linebreak`: |  | \linebreak & \nolinebreak
| `\linespread`: |  | Low-level font commands
| `\linethickness`: |  | \linethickness
| `\linewidth`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\linewidth`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\listoffigures`: |  | Tables of contents
| `\listoftables`: |  | Tables of contents
| `\listparindent`: |  | itemize
| `\ll`: |  | Math symbols
| `\ln`: |  | Math functions
| `\lnot`: |  | Math symbols
| `\location`: |  | \location
| `\log`: |  | Math functions
| `\longleftarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\longleftrightarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\longmapsto`: |  | Math symbols
| `\longrightarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\lor`: |  | Math symbols
| `\lq`: |  | Text symbols
| `\makebox`: |  | \makebox
| `\makebox (for `picture`)`: |  | \makebox (picture)
| `\makeglossary`: |  | Glossaries
| `\makeindex`: |  | Indexes
| `\makelabels`: |  | \makelabels
| `\maketitle`: |  | \maketitle
| `\mapsto`: |  | Math symbols
| `\marginpar`: |  | Marginal notes
| `\marginparpush`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\marginparpush`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\marginparpush`: |  | Marginal notes
| `\marginparsep`: |  | Marginal notes
| `\marginparwidth`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\marginparwidth`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\marginparwidth`: |  | Marginal notes
| `\marginsep`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\marginsep`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\markboth{left}{right}`: |  | \pagestyle
| `\markright{right}`: |  | \pagestyle
| `\mathbf`: |  | Font styles
| `\mathcal`: |  | Font styles
| `\mathnormal`: |  | Font styles
| `\mathring`: |  | Math accents
| `\mathrm`: |  | Font styles
| `\mathsf`: |  | Font styles
| `\mathtt`: |  | Font styles
| `\mathversion`: |  | Font styles
| `\max`: |  | Math functions
| `\mbox`: |  | \mbox
| `\mbox, and LR mode`: |  | Modes
| `\mdseries`: |  | Font styles
| `\medskip`: |  | \bigskip \medskip \smallskip
| `\medskipamount`: |  | \bigskip \medskip \smallskip
| `\medspace`: |  | Spacing in math mode
| `\mho`: |  | Math symbols
| `\mid`: |  | Math symbols
| `\min`: |  | Math functions
| `\models`: |  | Math symbols
| `\month`: |  | \day \month \year
| `\mp`: |  | Math symbols
| `\mu`: |  | Math symbols
| `\multicolumn`: |  | \multicolumn
| `\multiput`: |  | \multiput
| `\nabla`: |  | Math symbols
| `\name`: |  | \name
| `\natural`: |  | Math symbols
| `\ne`: |  | Math symbols
| `\nearrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\neg`: |  | Math symbols
| `\neq`: |  | Math symbols
| `\newcommand`: |  | \newcommand & \renewcommand
| `\newcounter`: |  | \newcounter
| `\newenvironment`: |  | \newenvironment & \renewenvironment
| `\newfont`: |  | \newfont
| `\newlength`: |  | \newlength
| `\newline`: |  | \newline
| `\NEWLINE`: |  | \(SPACE) and \@
| `\newpage`: |  | \newpage
| `\newsavebox`: |  | \newsavebox
| `\newtheorem`: |  | \newtheorem
| `\newtie`: |  | Accents
| `\ng`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\NG`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\ni`: |  | Math symbols
| `\nocite`: |  | \nocite
| `\nocorr`: |  | Font styles
| `\nocorrlist`: |  | Font styles
| `\nofiles`: |  | Tables of contents
| `\noindent`: |  | \noindent
| `\nolinebreak`: |  | \linebreak & \nolinebreak
| `\nonfrenchspacing`: |  | \frenchspacing
| `\nonumber`: |  | eqnarray
| `\nopagebreak`: |  | \pagebreak & \nopagebreak
| `\normalfont`: |  | Font styles
| `\normalmarginpar`: |  | Marginal notes
| `\normalsize`: |  | Font sizes
| `\not`: |  | Math symbols
| `\notin`: |  | Math symbols
| `\nu`: |  | Math symbols
| `\nwarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\o (ø)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\O (Ø)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\obeycr`: |  | \obeycr & \restorecr
| `\oddsidemargin`: |  | Document class options
| `\oddsidemargin`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\oddsidemargin`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\odot`: |  | Math symbols
| `\oe (œ)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\OE (Œ)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\oint`: |  | Math symbols
| `\oldstylenums`: |  | Font styles
| `\Omega`: |  | Math symbols
| `\omega`: |  | Math symbols
| `\ominus`: |  | Math symbols
| `\onecolumn`: |  | \onecolumn
| `\opening`: |  | \opening
| `\oplus`: |  | Math symbols
| `\oslash`: |  | Math symbols
| `\otimes`: |  | Math symbols
| `\oval`: |  | \oval
| `\overbrace{text}`: |  | Math miscellany
| `\overline{text}`: |  | Math miscellany
| `\owns`: |  | Math symbols
| `\P`: |  | Text symbols
| `\pagebreak`: |  | \pagebreak & \nopagebreak
| `\pagenumbering`: |  | \pagenumbering
| `\pageref`: |  | \pageref
| `\pagestyle`: |  | \pagestyle
| `\paperheight`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\paperheight`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\paperwidth`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\paperwidth`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\paragraph`: |  | Sectioning
| `\parallel`: |  | Math symbols
| `\parbox`: |  | \parbox
| `\parindent`: |  | minipage
| `\parindent`: |  | \indent
| `\parsep`: |  | itemize
| `\parskip`: |  | \parskip
| `\parskip example`: |  | itemize
| `\part`: |  | Sectioning
| `\partial`: |  | Math symbols
| `\partopsep`: |  | itemize
| `\pdfpageheight`: |  | Document class options
| `\pdfpagewidth`: |  | Document class options
| `\perp`: |  | Math symbols
| `\phi`: |  | Math symbols
| `\Pi`: |  | Math symbols
| `\pi`: |  | Math symbols
| `\pm`: |  | Math symbols
| `\pmod`: |  | Math functions
| `\poptabs`: |  | tabbing
| `\poptabs`: |  | tabbing
| `\pounds`: |  | Text symbols
| `\Pr`: |  | Math functions
| `\prec`: |  | Math symbols
| `\preceq`: |  | Math symbols
| `\prime`: |  | Math symbols
| `\prod`: |  | Math symbols
| `\propto`: |  | Math symbols
| `\protect`: |  | \protect
| `\providecommand`: |  | \providecommand
| `\ps`: |  | \ps
| `\Psi`: |  | Math symbols
| `\psi`: |  | Math symbols
| `\pushtabs`: |  | tabbing
| `\put`: |  | \put
| `\qquad`: |  | Spacing in math mode
| `\quad`: |  | Spacing in math mode
| `\quotedblbase („)`: |  | Text symbols
| `\quotesinglbase (‚)`: |  | Text symbols
| `\r (ring accent)`: |  | Accents
| `\raggedbottom`: |  | \raggedbottom
| `\raggedleft`: |  | \raggedleft
| `\raggedright`: |  | \raggedright
| `\raisebox`: |  | \raisebox
| `\rangle`: |  | Math symbols
| `\rbrace`: |  | Math symbols
| `\rbrack`: |  | Math symbols
| `\rceil`: |  | Math symbols
| `\Re`: |  | Math symbols
| `\ref`: |  | \ref
| `\refstepcounter`: |  | \refstepcounter
| `\renewenvironment`: |  | \newenvironment & \renewenvironment
| `\restorecr`: |  | \obeycr & \restorecr
| `\restriction`: |  | Math symbols
| `\reversemarginpar`: |  | Marginal notes
| `\rfloor`: |  | Math symbols
| `\rhd`: |  | Math symbols
| `\rho`: |  | Math symbols
| `\right`: |  | Math miscellany
| `\Rightarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\rightarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\rightharpoondown`: |  | Math symbols
| `\rightharpoonup`: |  | Math symbols
| `\rightleftharpoons`: |  | Math symbols
| `\rightmargin`: |  | itemize
| `\rm`: |  | Font styles
| `\rmfamily`: |  | Font styles
| `\roman`: |  | \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol
| `\Roman`: |  | \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol
| `\rq`: |  | Text symbols
| `\rule`: |  | \rule
| `\S`: |  | Text symbols
| `\savebox`: |  | \savebox
| `\sbox`: |  | \sbox
| `\sc`: |  | Font styles
| `\scriptsize`: |  | Font sizes
| `\scshape`: |  | Font styles
| `\searrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\sec`: |  | Math functions
| `\section`: |  | Sectioning
| `\seename`: |  | Indexes
| `\selectfont`: |  | Low-level font commands
| `\setcounter`: |  | \setcounter
| `\setlength`: |  | \setlength
| `\setminus`: |  | Math symbols
| `\settodepth`: |  | \settodepth
| `\settoheight`: |  | \settoheight
| `\settowidth`: |  | \settowidth
| `\sf`: |  | Font styles
| `\sffamily`: |  | Font styles
| `\sharp`: |  | Math symbols
| `\shortstack`: |  | \shortstack
| `\Sigma`: |  | Math symbols
| `\sigma`: |  | Math symbols
| `\signature`: |  | \signature
| `\sim`: |  | Math symbols
| `\simeq`: |  | Math symbols
| `\sin`: |  | Math functions
| `\sinh`: |  | Math functions
| `\sl`: |  | Font styles
| `\sloppy`: |  | \sloppy
| `\slshape`: |  | Font styles
| `\small`: |  | Font sizes
| `\smallint`: |  | Math symbols
| `\smallskip`: |  | \bigskip \medskip \smallskip
| `\smallskipamount`: |  | \bigskip \medskip \smallskip
| `\smile`: |  | Math symbols
| `\spadesuit`: |  | Math symbols
| `\sqcap`: |  | Math symbols
| `\sqcup`: |  | Math symbols
| `\sqrt[root]{arg}`: |  | Math miscellany
| `\sqsubset`: |  | Math symbols
| `\sqsubseteq`: |  | Math symbols
| `\sqsupset`: |  | Math symbols
| `\sqsupseteq`: |  | Math symbols
| `\ss (ß)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\SS (SS)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\stackrel{text}{relation}`: |  | Math miscellany
| `\star`: |  | Math symbols
| `\stepcounter`: |  | \stepcounter
| `\stop`: |  | Command line
| `\subparagraph`: |  | Sectioning
| `\subsection`: |  | Sectioning
| `\subset`: |  | Math symbols
| `\subseteq`: |  | Math symbols
| `\subsubsection`: |  | Sectioning
| `\succ`: |  | Math symbols
| `\succeq`: |  | Math symbols
| `\sum`: |  | Math symbols
| `\sup`: |  | Math functions
| `\suppressfloats`: |  | Floats
| `\supset`: |  | Math symbols
| `\supseteq`: |  | Math symbols
| `\surd`: |  | Math symbols
| `\swarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\symbol`: |  | Reserved characters
| `\t (tie-after accent)`: |  | Accents
| `\TAB`: |  | \(SPACE) and \@
| `\tabbingsep`: |  | tabbing
| `\tabcolsep`: |  | tabular
| `\tableofcontents`: |  | Tables of contents
| `\tan`: |  | Math functions
| `\tanh`: |  | Math functions
| `\tau`: |  | Math symbols
| `\telephone`: |  | \telephone
| `\TeX`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textascenderwordmark`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textasciicircum`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textasciitilde`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textasteriskcentered`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textbackslash`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textbar`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textbardbl`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textbf`: |  | Font styles
| `\textbigcircle`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textbraceleft`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textbraceright`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textbullet`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textcapitalwordmark`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textcircled{letter}`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textcompwordmark`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textcopyright`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textdagger`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textdaggerdbl`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textdollar (or `$`)`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textellipsis`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textemdash (or `---`)`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textendash (or `--`)`: |  | Text symbols
| `\texteuro`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textexclamdown (or `!``)`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textfloatsep`: |  | Floats
| `\textfloatsep`: |  | Floats
| `\textfraction`: |  | Floats
| `\textfraction`: |  | Floats
| `\textgreater`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textheight`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\textheight`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\textit`: |  | Font styles
| `\textleftarrow`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textless`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textmd`: |  | Font styles
| `\textnormal`: |  | Font styles
| `\textordfeminine`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textordmasculine`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textparagraph`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textperiodcentered`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textquestiondown (or `?``)`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textquotedblleft (or ````)`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textquotedblright (or `'`)`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textquoteleft (or ```)`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textquoteright (or `'`)`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textquotestraightbase`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textquotestraightdblbase`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textregistered`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textrightarrow`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textrm`: |  | Font styles
| `\textsc`: |  | Font styles
| `\textsf`: |  | Font styles
| `\textsl`: |  | Font styles
| `\textsterling`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textthreequartersemdash`: |  | Text symbols
| `\texttrademark`: |  | Text symbols
| `\texttt`: |  | Font styles
| `\texttwelveudash`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textunderscore`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textup`: |  | Font styles
| `\textvisiblespace`: |  | Text symbols
| `\textwidth`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\textwidth`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\th (þ)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\TH (Þ)`: |  | Non-English characters
| `\thanks{text}`: |  | \maketitle
| `\theta`: |  | Math symbols
| `\thicklines`: |  | \thicklines
| `\thickspace`: |  | Spacing in math mode
| `\thinlines`: |  | \thinlines
| `\thinspace`: |  | Spacing in math mode
| `\thinspace`: |  | \thinspace
| `\thispagestyle`: |  | \thispagestyle
| `\tilde`: |  | Math accents
| `\times`: |  | Math symbols
| `\tiny`: |  | Font sizes
| `\title{text}`: |  | \maketitle
| `\to`: |  | Math symbols
| `\today`: |  | \today
| `\top`: |  | Math symbols
| `\topfraction`: |  | Floats
| `\topfraction`: |  | Floats
| `\topmargin`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\topsep`: |  | itemize
| `\topskip`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\topskip`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `\totalheight`: |  | Predefined lengths
| `\triangle`: |  | Math symbols
| `\triangleleft`: |  | Math symbols
| `\triangleright`: |  | Math symbols
| `\tt`: |  | Font styles
| `\ttfamily`: |  | Font styles
| `\twocolumn`: |  | \twocolumn
| `\typein`: |  | \typein
| `\typeout`: |  | \typeout
| `\u (breve accent)`: |  | Accents
| `\unboldmath`: |  | Math formulas
| `\underbar`: |  | Accents
| `\underbrace{math}`: |  | Math miscellany
| `\underline{text}`: |  | Math miscellany
| `\unitlength`: |  | picture
| `\unlhd`: |  | Math symbols
| `\unrhd`: |  | Math symbols
| `\Uparrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\uparrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\Updownarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\updownarrow`: |  | Math symbols
| `\upharpoonright`: |  | Math symbols
| `\uplus`: |  | Math symbols
| `\upshape`: |  | Font styles
| `\Upsilon`: |  | Math symbols
| `\upsilon`: |  | Math symbols
| `\usebox`: |  | \usebox
| `\usecounter`: |  | \usecounter
| `\usefont`: |  | Low-level font commands
| `\usepackage`: |  | Document class options
| `\v (breve accent)`: |  | Accents
| `\value`: |  | \value
| `\varepsilon`: |  | Math symbols
| `\varphi`: |  | Math symbols
| `\varpi`: |  | Math symbols
| `\varrho`: |  | Math symbols
| `\varsigma`: |  | Math symbols
| `\vartheta`: |  | Math symbols
| `\vdash`: |  | Math symbols
| `\vdots`: |  | Math miscellany
| `\vdots`: |  | Math miscellany
| `\vec`: |  | Math accents
| `\vector`: |  | \vector
| `\vee`: |  | Math symbols
| `\verb`: |  | \verb
| `\Vert`: |  | Math symbols
| `\vert`: |  | Math symbols
| `\vfill`: |  | \vfill
| `\vline`: |  | \vline
| `\vspace`: |  | \vspace
| `\wedge`: |  | Math symbols
| `\widehat`: |  | Math accents
| `\widetilde`: |  | Math accents
| `\width`: |  | Predefined lengths
| `\wp`: |  | Math symbols
| `\wr`: |  | Math symbols
| `\Xi`: |  | Math symbols
| `\xi`: |  | Math symbols
| `\year`: |  | \day \month \year
| `\zeta`: |  | Math symbols
| `\[`: |  | Math formulas
| `\\ (for `center`)`: |  | center
| `\\ (for `eqnarray`)`: |  | eqnarray
| `\\ (for `flushright`)`: |  | flushright
| `\\ (for `\shortstack` objects)`: |  | \shortstack
| `\\ (tabbing)`: |  | tabbing
| `\\ for `flushleft``: |  | flushleft
| `\\ for letters`: |  | Letters
| `\\ for `tabular``: |  | tabular
| `\\ for `verse``: |  | verse
| `\\ for `\author``: |  | \maketitle
| `\\ for `\title``: |  | \maketitle
| `\\ force line break`: |  | \\
| `\\* (for `eqnarray`)`: |  | eqnarray
| `\]`: |  | Math formulas
| `\^`: |  | Reserved characters
| `\^ (circumflex accent)`: |  | Accents
| `\_`: |  | Reserved characters
| `\` (grave accent)`: |  | Accents
| `\` (tabbing)`: |  | tabbing
| `\{`: |  | Reserved characters
| `\|`: |  | Math symbols
| `\}`: |  | Reserved characters
| `\~`: |  | Reserved characters
| `\~ (tilde accent)`: |  | Accents

^ |  |
| `^`: |  | Subscripts & superscripts

_ |  |
| `_`: |  | Subscripts & superscripts

{ |  |
| `{...} for required arguments`: |  | LaTeX command syntax

A |  |
| `a4paper option`: |  | Document class options
| `a5paper option`: |  | Document class options
| `abstract environment`: |  | abstract
| `array environment`: |  | array
| `article class`: |  | Document classes

B |  |
| `b5paper option`: |  | Document class options
| `book class`: |  | Document classes
| `bottomnumber`: |  | Floats
| `bottomnumber`: |  | Floats
| `bp`: |  | Units of length

C |  |
| `cc`: |  | Units of length
| `center environment`: |  | center
| `clock option to `slides` class`: |  | Document class options
| `cm`: |  | Units of length

D |  |
| `dbltopnumber`: |  | Floats
| `dbltopnumber`: |  | Floats
| `dd`: |  | Units of length
| `description environment`: |  | description
| `displaymath environment`: |  | displaymath
| `displaymath environment`: |  | Math formulas
| `document environment`: |  | document
| `draft option`: |  | Document class options
| `dvipdfmx command`: |  | Output files
| `dvips command`: |  | Output files
| `dvitype command`: |  | Output files

E |  |
| `em`: |  | Units of length
| `enumerate environment`: |  | enumerate
| `eqnarray environment`: |  | eqnarray
| `equation environment`: |  | equation
| `equation environment`: |  | Math formulas
| `etex command`: |  | TeX engines
| `ex`: |  | Units of length
| `executivepaper option`: |  | Document class options

F |  |
| `figure`: |  | figure
| `filecontents`: |  | filecontents
| `final option`: |  | Document class options
| `first-latex-doc document`: |  | About this document
| `fleqn option`: |  | Document class options
| `flushleft environment`: |  | flushleft
| `flushright environment`: |  | flushright

H |  |
| ```http://home.gna.org/latexrefman home page`: |  | About this document

I |  |
| `in`: |  | Units of length
| `inch`: |  | Units of length
| `indexspace`: |  | Indexes
| `itemize environment`: |  | itemize

L |  |
| `landscape option`: |  | Document class options
| `latex command`: |  | Output files
| `latex-doc-ptr document`: |  | About this document
| ```latexrefman-discuss@gna.org email address`: |  | About this document
| `legalpaper option`: |  | Document class options
| `leqno option`: |  | Document class options
| `letter class`: |  | Document classes
| `letter environment`: |  | letter
| `letterpaper option`: |  | Document class options
| `list`: |  | list
| `lR box`: |  | picture
| `lrbox`: |  | lrbox
| `lshort document`: |  | About this document
| `lualatex command`: |  | TeX engines

M |  |
| `math environment`: |  | math
| `math environment`: |  | Math formulas
| `minipage environment`: |  | minipage
| `mm`: |  | Units of length
| `mu`: |  | Units of length

N |  |
| `notitlepage option`: |  | Document class options

O |  |
| `onecolumn option`: |  | Document class options
| `oneside option`: |  | Document class options
| `openany option`: |  | Document class options
| `openbib option`: |  | Document class options
| `openright option`: |  | Document class options

P |  |
| `pc`: |  | Units of length
| `pdflatex command`: |  | Output files
| `picture`: |  | picture
| `printindex`: |  | Indexes
| `pt`: |  | Units of length

Q |  |
| `quotation`: |  | quotation and quote
| `quote`: |  | quotation and quote

R |  |
| `report class`: |  | Document classes

S |  |
| `secnumdepth counter`: |  | Sectioning
| `slides class`: |  | Document classes
| `sp`: |  | Units of length

T |  |
| `tabbing environment`: |  | tabbing
| `table`: |  | table
| `tabular environment`: |  | tabular
| `textcomp package`: |  | Text symbols
| `thebibliography environment`: |  | thebibliography
| `theorem environment`: |  | theorem
| `titlepage environment`: |  | titlepage
| `titlepage option`: |  | Document class options
| `topmargin`: |  | Page layout parameters
| `topnumber`: |  | Floats
| `topnumber`: |  | Floats
| `totalnumber`: |  | Floats
| `totalnumber`: |  | Floats
| `twocolumn option`: |  | Document class options
| `twoside option`: |  | Document class options

U |  |
| `usrguide official documentation`: |  | About this document

V |  |
| `verbatim environment`: |  | verbatim
| `verse environment`: |  | verse

X |  |
| `xdvi command`: |  | Output files
| `xdvipdfmx`: |  | TeX engines
| `xelatex command`: |  | TeX engines

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