
[TOC]

# Error Handling

Rust’s commitment to reliability extends to error handling. Errors are a fact
of life in software, so Rust has a number of features for handling situations
in which something goes wrong. In many cases, Rust will require you to
acknowledge the possibility of an error occurring and take some action before
your code will compile. This makes your program more robust by ensuring that
you won’t only discover errors after you’ve deployed your code to production.

Rust groups errors into two major categories: *recoverable* and *unrecoverable*
errors. Recoverable errors are situations when it’s usually reasonable to
report the problem to the user and retry the operation, like a file not being
found. Unrecoverable errors are always symptoms of bugs, like trying to access
a location beyond the end of an array.

Most languages don’t distinguish between the two kinds of errors, and handle
both in the same way using mechanisms like exceptions. Rust doesn’t have
exceptions. Instead, it has the value `Result<T, E>` for recoverable errors and
the `panic!` macro that stops execution when it encounters unrecoverable
errors. This chapter will cover calling `panic!` first, then talk about
returning `Result<T, E>` values. Finally, we’ll discuss considerations to take
into account when deciding whether to try to recover from an error or to stop
execution.

## Unrecoverable Errors with `panic!`

Sometimes, bad things happen, and there’s nothing that you can do about it. For
these cases, Rust has the `panic!` macro. When this macro executes, your
program will print a failure message, unwind and clean up the stack, and then
quit. The most common situation this occurs in is when a bug of some kind has
been detected and it’s not clear to the programmer how to handle the error.

> ### Unwinding the Stack Versus Aborting on Panic
>
> By default, when a `panic!` occurs, the program starts
> *unwinding*, which means Rust walks back up the stack and cleans up the data
> from each function it encounters, but this walking and cleanup is a lot of
> work. The alternative is to immediately *abort*, which ends the program
> without cleaning up. Memory that the program was using will then need to be
> cleaned up by the operating system. If in your project you need to make the
> resulting binary as small as possible, you can switch from unwinding to
> aborting on panic by adding `panic = 'abort'` to the appropriate `[profile]`
> sections in your *Cargo.toml*. For example, if you want to abort on panic in
> release mode:
>
> ```toml
> [profile.release]
> panic = 'abort'
> ```

Let’s try calling `panic!` with a simple program:

Filename: src/main.rs

```rust,should_panic
fn main() {
    panic!("crash and burn");
}
```

If you run it, you’ll see something like this:

```text
$ cargo run
   Compiling panic v0.1.0 (file:///projects/panic)
    Finished debug [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.25 secs
     Running `target/debug/panic`
thread 'main' panicked at 'crash and burn', src/main.rs:2
note: Run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` for a backtrace.
error: Process didn't exit successfully: `target/debug/panic` (exit code: 101)
```

The last three lines contain the error message caused by the call to `panic!`.
The first line shows our panic message and the place in our source code where
the panic occurred: *src/main.rs:2* indicates that it’s the second line of our
*src/main.rs* file.

In this case, the line indicated is part of our code, and if we go to that line
we see the `panic!` macro call. In other cases, the `panic!` call might be in
code that our code calls. The filename and line number reported by the error
message will be someone else’s code where the `panic!` macro is called, not the
line of our code that eventually led to the `panic!`. We can use the backtrace
of the functions the `panic!` call came from to figure this out.

### Using a `panic!` Backtrace

Let’s look at another example to see what it’s like when a `panic!` call comes
from a library because of a bug in our code instead of from our code calling
the macro directly:

Filename: src/main.rs

```rust,should_panic
fn main() {
    let v = vec![1, 2, 3];

    v[100];
}
```

We’re attempting to access the hundredth element of our vector, but it only has
three elements. In this situation, Rust will panic. Using `[]` is supposed to
return an element, but if you pass an invalid index, there’s no element that
Rust could return here that would be correct.

Other languages like C will attempt to give you exactly what you asked for in
this situation, even though it isn’t what you want: you’ll get whatever is at
the location in memory that would correspond to that element in the vector,
even though the memory doesn’t belong to the vector. This is called a *buffer
overread*, and can lead to security vulnerabilities if an attacker can
manipulate the index in such a way as to read data they shouldn’t be allowed to
that is stored after the array.

In order to protect your program from this sort of vulnerability, if you try to
read an element at an index that doesn’t exist, Rust will stop execution and
refuse to continue. Let’s try it and see:

```text
$ cargo run
   Compiling panic v0.1.0 (file:///projects/panic)
    Finished debug [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.27 secs
     Running `target/debug/panic`
thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is
100', /stable-dist-rustc/build/src/libcollections/vec.rs:1362
note: Run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` for a backtrace.
error: Process didn't exit successfully: `target/debug/panic` (exit code: 101)
```

This points at a file we didn’t write, *libcollections/vec.rs*. That’s the
implementation of `Vec<T>` in the standard library. The code that gets run when
we use `[]` on our vector `v` is in *libcollections/vec.rs*, and that is where
the `panic!` is actually happening.

The next note line tells us that we can set the `RUST_BACKTRACE` environment
variable to get a backtrace of exactly what happened to cause the error. Let’s
try that. Listing 9-1 shows output similar to what you’ll see:

```text
$ RUST_BACKTRACE=1 cargo run
    Finished debug [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0 secs
     Running `target/debug/panic`
thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is
100', /stable-dist-rustc/build/src/libcollections/vec.rs:1395
stack backtrace:
   1:        0x10922522c -
std::sys::imp::backtrace::tracing::imp::write::h1204ab053b688140
   2:        0x10922649e -
std::panicking::default_hook::{{closure}}::h1204ab053b688140
   3:        0x109226140 - std::panicking::default_hook::h1204ab053b688140
   4:        0x109226897 -
std::panicking::rust_panic_with_hook::h1204ab053b688140
   5:        0x1092266f4 - std::panicking::begin_panic::h1204ab053b688140
   6:        0x109226662 - std::panicking::begin_panic_fmt::h1204ab053b688140
   7:        0x1092265c7 - rust_begin_unwind
   8:        0x1092486f0 - core::panicking::panic_fmt::h1204ab053b688140
   9:        0x109248668 -
core::panicking::panic_bounds_check::h1204ab053b688140
  10:        0x1092205b5 - <collections::vec::Vec<T> as
core::ops::Index<usize>>::index::h1204ab053b688140
  11:        0x10922066a - panic::main::h1204ab053b688140
  12:        0x1092282ba - __rust_maybe_catch_panic
  13:        0x109226b16 - std::rt::lang_start::h1204ab053b688140
  14:        0x1092206e9 - main
```


Listing 9-1: The backtrace generated by a call to `panic!` displayed when the
environment variable `RUST_BACKTRACE` is set

That’s a lot of output! Line 11 of the backtrace points to the line in our
project causing the problem: *src/main.rs*, line four. A backtrace is a list of
all the functions that have been called to get to this point. Backtraces in
Rust work like they do in other languages: the key to reading the backtrace is
to start from the top and read until you see files you wrote. That’s the spot
where the problem originated. The lines above the lines mentioning your files
are code that your code called; the lines below are code that called your code.
These lines might include core Rust code, standard library code, or crates that
you’re using.

If we don’t want our program to panic, the location pointed to by the first
line mentioning a file we wrote is where we should start investigating in order
to figure out how we got to this location with values that caused the panic. In
our example where we deliberately wrote code that would panic in order to
demonstrate how to use backtraces, the way to fix the panic is to not try to
request an element at index 100 from a vector that only contains three items.
When your code panics in the future, you’ll need to figure out for your
particular case what action the code is taking with what values that causes the
panic and what the code should do instead.

We’ll come back to `panic!` and when we should and should not use these methods
later in the chapter. Next, we’ll now look at how to recover from an error with
`Result`.

## Recoverable Errors with `Result`

Most errors aren’t serious enough to require the program to stop entirely.
Sometimes, when a function fails, it’s for a reason that we can easily
interpret and respond to. For example, if we try to open a file and that
operation fails because the file doesn’t exist, we might want to create the
file instead of terminating the process.

Recall from Chapter 2 the section on “Handling Potential Failure with the
`Result` Type” that the `Result` enum is defined as having two variants, `Ok`
and `Err`, as follows:

```rust
enum Result<T, E> {
    Ok(T),
    Err(E),
}
```

The `T` and `E` are generic type parameters; we’ll go into generics in more
detail in Chapter 10. What you need to know right now is that `T` represents
the type of the value that will be returned in a success case within the `Ok`
variant, and `E` represents the type of the error that will be returned in a
failure case within the `Err` variant. Because `Result` has these generic type
parameters, we can use the `Result` type and the functions that the standard
library has defined on it in many different situations where the successful
value and error value we want to return may differ.

Let’s call a function that returns a `Result` value because the function could
fail: opening a file, shown in Listing 9-2.

Filename: src/main.rs

```rust
use std::fs::File;

fn main() {
    let f = File::open("hello.txt");
}
```


Listing 9-2: Opening a file

How do we know `File::open` returns a `Result`? We could look at the standard
library API documentation, or we could ask the compiler! If we give `f` a type
annotation of some type that we know the return type of the function is *not*,
then we try to compile the code, the compiler will tell us that the types don’t
match. The error message will then tell us what the type of `f` *is*! Let’s try
it: we know that the return type of `File::open` isn’t of type `u32`, so let’s
change the `let f` statement to:

```rust,ignore
let f: u32 = File::open("hello.txt");
```

Attempting to compile now gives us:

```text
error[E0308]: mismatched types
 --> src/main.rs:4:18
  |
4 |     let f: u32 = File::open("hello.txt");
  |                  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ expected u32, found enum
`std::result::Result`
  |
  = note: expected type `u32`
  = note:    found type `std::result::Result<std::fs::File, std::io::Error>`
```

This tells us the return type of the `File::open` function is a `Result<T, E>`.
The generic parameter `T` has been filled in here with the type of the success
value, `std::fs::File`, which is a file handle. The type of `E` used in the
error value is `std::io::Error`.

This return type means the call to `File::open` might succeed and return to us
a file handle that we can read from or write to. The function call also might
fail: for example, the file might not exist, or we might not have permission to
access the file. The `File::open` function needs to have a way to tell us
whether it succeeded or failed, and at the same time give us either the file
handle or error information. This information is exactly what the `Result` enum
conveys.

In the case where `File::open` succeeds, the value we will have in the variable
`f` will be an instance of `Ok` that contains a file handle. In the case where
it fails, the value in `f` will be an instance of `Err` that contains more
information about the kind of error that happened.

We need to add to the code from Listing 9-2 to take different actions depending
on the value `File::open` returned. Listing 9-3 shows one way to handle the
`Result` with a basic tool: the `match` expression that we learned about in
Chapter 6.

Filename: src/main.rs

```rust,should_panic
use std::fs::File;

fn main() {
    let f = File::open("hello.txt");

    let f = match f {
        Ok(file) => file,
        Err(error) => {
            panic!("There was a problem opening the file: {:?}", error)
        },
    };
}
```


Listing 9-3: Using a `match` expression to handle the `Result` variants we
might have

Note that, like the `Option` enum, the `Result` enum and its variants have been
imported in the prelude, so we don’t need to specify `Result::` before the `Ok`
and `Err` variants in the `match` arms.

Here we tell Rust that when the result is `Ok`, return the inner `file` value
out of the `Ok` variant, and we then assign that file handle value to the
variable `f`. After the `match`, we can then use the file handle for reading or
writing.

The other arm of the `match` handles the case where we get an `Err` value from
`File::open`. In this example, we’ve chosen to call the `panic!` macro. If
there’s no file named *hello.txt* in our current directory and we run this
code, we’ll see the following output from the `panic!` macro:

```text
thread 'main' panicked at 'There was a problem opening the file: Error { repr:
Os { code: 2, message: "No such file or directory" } }', src/main.rs:8
```

### Matching on Different Errors

The code in Listing 9-3 will `panic!` no matter the reason that `File::open`
failed. What we’d really like to do instead is take different actions for
different failure reasons: if `File::open` failed because the file doesn’t
exist, we want to create the file and return the handle to the new file. If
`File::open` failed for any other reason, for example because we didn’t have
permission to open the file, we still want to `panic!` in the same way as we
did in Listing 9-3. Let’s look at Listing 9-4, which adds another arm to the
`match`:

Filename: src/main.rs

```rust,ignore
use std::fs::File;
use std::io::ErrorKind;

fn main() {
    let f = File::open("hello.txt");

    let f = match f {
        Ok(file) => file,
        Err(ref error) if error.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound => {
            match File::create("hello.txt") {
                Ok(fc) => fc,
                Err(e) => {
                    panic!(
                        "Tried to create file but there was a problem: {:?}",
                        e
                    )
                },
            }
        },
        Err(error) => {
            panic!(
                "There was a problem opening the file: {:?}",
                error
            )
        },
    };
}
```


Listing 9-4: Handling different kinds of errors in different ways

The type of the value that `File::open` returns inside the `Err` variant is
`io::Error`, which is a struct provided by the standard library. This struct
has a method `kind` that we can call to get an `io::ErrorKind` value.
`io::ErrorKind` is an enum provided by the standard library that has variants
representing the different kinds of errors that might result from an `io`
operation. The variant we’re interested in is `ErrorKind::NotFound`, which
indicates the file we’re trying to open doesn’t exist yet.

The condition `if error.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound` is called a *match
guard*: it’s an extra condition on a `match` arm that further refines the arm’s
pattern. This condition must be true in order for that arm’s code to get run;
otherwise, the pattern matching will move on to consider the next arm in the
`match`. The `ref` in the pattern is needed so that `error` is not moved into
the guard condition but is merely referenced by it. The reason `ref` is used to
take a reference in a pattern instead of `&` will be covered in detail in
Chapter 18. In short, in the context of a pattern, `&` matches a reference and
gives us its value, but `ref` matches a value and gives us a reference to it.

The condition we want to check in the match guard is whether the value returned
by `error.kind()` is the `NotFound` variant of the `ErrorKind` enum. If it is,
we try to create the file with `File::create`. However, since `File::create`
could also fail, we need to add an inner `match` statement as well! When the
file can’t be opened, a different error message will be printed. The last arm
of the outer `match` stays the same so that the program panics on any error
besides the missing file error.

### Shortcuts for Panic on Error: `unwrap` and `expect`

Using `match` works well enough, but it can be a bit verbose and doesn’t always
communicate intent well. The `Result<T, E>` type has many helper methods
defined on it to do various things. One of those methods, called `unwrap`, is a
shortcut method that is implemented just like the `match` statement we wrote in
Listing 9-3. If the `Result` value is the `Ok` variant, `unwrap` will return
the value inside the `Ok`. If the `Result` is the `Err` variant, `unwrap` will
call the `panic!` macro for us.

```rust,should_panic
use std::fs::File;

fn main() {
    let f = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap();
}
```

If we run this code without a *hello.txt* file, we’ll see an error message from
the `panic!` call that the `unwrap` method makes:

```text
thread 'main' panicked at 'called `Result::unwrap()` on an `Err` value: Error {
repr: Os { code: 2, message: "No such file or directory" } }',
/stable-dist-rustc/build/src/libcore/result.rs:868
```

There’s another method similar to `unwrap` that lets us also choose the
`panic!` error message: `expect`. Using `expect` instead of `unwrap` and
providing good error messages can convey your intent and make tracking down the
source of a panic easier. The syntax of `expect` looks like this:

```rust,should_panic
use std::fs::File;

fn main() {
    let f = File::open("hello.txt").expect("Failed to open hello.txt");
}
```

We use `expect` in the same way as `unwrap`: to return the file handle or call
the `panic!` macro. The error message that `expect` uses in its call to
`panic!` will be the parameter that we pass to `expect` instead of the default
`panic!` message that `unwrap` uses. Here’s what it looks like:

```text
thread 'main' panicked at 'Failed to open hello.txt: Error { repr: Os { code:
2, message: "No such file or directory" } }',
/stable-dist-rustc/build/src/libcore/result.rs:868
```

### Propagating Errors

When writing a function whose implementation calls something that might fail,
instead of handling the error within this function, you can choose to let your
caller know about the error so they can decide what to do. This is known as
*propagating* the error, and gives more control to the calling code where there
might be more information or logic that dictates how the error should be
handled than what you have available in the context of your code.

For example, Listing 9-5 shows a function that reads a username from a file. If
the file doesn’t exist or can’t be read, this function will return those errors
to the code that called this function:

```rust
use std::io;
use std::io::Read;
use std::fs::File;

fn read_username_from_file() -> Result<String, io::Error> {
    let f = File::open("hello.txt");

    let mut f = match f {
        Ok(file) => file,
        Err(e) => return Err(e),
    };

    let mut s = String::new();

    match f.read_to_string(&mut s) {
        Ok(_) => Ok(s),
        Err(e) => Err(e),
    }
}
```


Listing 9-5: A function that returns errors to the calling code using `match`

Let’s look at the return type of the function first: `Result<String,
io::Error>`. This means that the function is returning a value of the type
`Result<T, E>` where the generic parameter `T` has been filled in with the
concrete type `String`, and the generic type `E` has been filled in with the
concrete type `io::Error`. If this function succeeds without any problems, the
caller of this function will receive an `Ok` value that holds a `String` — the
username that this function read from the file. If this function encounters any
problems, the caller of this function will receive an `Err` value that holds an
instance of `io::Error` that contains more information about what the problems
were. We chose `io::Error` as the return type of this function because that
happens to be the type of the error value returned from both of the operations
we’re calling in this function’s body that might fail: the `File::open`
function and the `read_to_string` method.

The body of the function starts by calling the `File::open` function. Then we
handle the `Result` value returned with a `match` similar to the `match` in
Listing 9-3, only instead of calling `panic!` in the `Err` case, we return
early from this function and pass the error value from `File::open` back to the
caller as this function’s error value. If `File::open` succeeds, we store the
file handle in the variable `f` and continue.

Then we create a new `String` in variable `s` and call the `read_to_string`
method on the file handle in `f` in order to read the contents of the file into
`s`. The `read_to_string` method also returns a `Result` because it might fail,
even though `File::open` succeeded. So we need another `match` to handle that
`Result`: if `read_to_string` succeeds, then our function has succeeded, and we
return the username from the file that’s now in `s` wrapped in an `Ok`. If
`read_to_string` fails, we return the error value in the same way that we
returned the error value in the `match` that handled the return value of
`File::open`. We don’t need to explicitly say `return`, however, since this is
the last expression in the function.

The code that calls this code will then handle getting either an `Ok` value
that contains a username or an `Err` value that contains an `io::Error`. We
don’t know what the caller will do with those values. If they get an `Err`
value, they could choose to call `panic!` and crash their program, use a
default username, or look up the username from somewhere other than a file, for
example. We don’t have enough information on what the caller is actually trying
to do, so we propagate all the success or error information upwards for them to
handle as they see fit.

This pattern of propagating errors is so common in Rust that there is dedicated
syntax to make this easier: `?`.

### A Shortcut for Propagating Errors: `?`

Listing 9-6 shows an implementation of `read_username_from_file` that has the
same functionality as it had in Listing 9-5, but this implementation uses the
question mark operator:

```rust
use std::io;
use std::fs::File;

fn read_username_from_file() -> Result<String, io::Error> {
    let mut f = File::open("hello.txt")?;
    let mut s = String::new();
    f.read_to_string(&mut s)?;
    Ok(s)
}
```


Listing 9-6: A function that returns errors to the calling code using `?`

The `?` placed after a `Result` value is defined to work the exact same way as
the `match` expressions we defined to handle the `Result` values in Listing
9-5. If the value of the `Result` is an `Ok`, the value inside the `Ok` will
get returned from this expression and the program will continue. If the value
is an `Err`, the value inside the `Err` will be returned from the whole
function as if we had used the `return` keyword so that the error value gets
propagated to the caller.

In the context of Listing 9-6, the `?` at the end of the `File::open` call will
return the value inside an `Ok` to the variable `f`. If an error occurs, `?`
will return early out of the whole function and give any `Err` value to our
caller. The same thing applies to the `?` at the end of the `read_to_string`
call.

The `?` eliminates a lot of boilerplate and makes this function’s
implementation simpler. We could even shorten this code further by chaining
method calls immediately after the `?`:

```rust
use std::io;
use std::io::Read;
use std::fs::File;

fn read_username_from_file() -> Result<String, io::Error> {
    let mut s = String::new();

    File::open("hello.txt")?.read_to_string(&mut s)?;

    Ok(s)
}
```

We’ve moved the creation of the new `String` in `s` to the beginning of the
function; that part hasn’t changed. Instead of creating a variable `f`, we’ve
chained the call to `read_to_string` directly onto the result of
`File::open("hello.txt")?`. We still have a `?` at the end of the
`read_to_string` call, and we still return an `Ok` value containing the
username in `s` when both `File::open` and `read_to_string` succeed rather than
returning errors. The functionality is again the same as in Listing 9-5 and
Listing 9-6, this is just a different, more ergonomic way to write it.

### `?` Can Only Be Used in Functions That Return `Result`

The `?` can only be used in functions that have a return type of `Result`,
since it is defined to work in exactly the same way as the `match` expression
we defined in Listing 9-5. The part of the `match` that requires a return type
of `Result` is `return Err(e)`, so the return type of the function must be a
`Result` to be compatible with this `return`.

Let’s look at what happens if use `?` in the `main` function, which you’ll
recall has a return type of `()`:

```rust,ignore
use std::fs::File;

fn main() {
    let f = File::open("hello.txt")?;
}
```



When we compile this, we get the following error message:

```text
error[E0308]: mismatched types
 -->
  |
3 |     let f = File::open("hello.txt")?;
  |             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ expected (), found enum
`std::result::Result`
  |
  = note: expected type `()`
  = note:    found type `std::result::Result<_, _>`
```

This error is pointing out that we have mismatched types: the `main` function
has a return type of `()`, but the `?` might return a `Result`. In functions
that don’t return `Result`, when you call other functions that return `Result`,
you’ll need to use a `match` or one of the `Result` methods to handle it,
instead of using `?` to potentially propagate the error to the caller.

Now that we’ve discussed the details of calling `panic!` or returning `Result`,
let’s return to the topic of how to decide which is appropriate to use in which
cases.

## To `panic!` or Not To `panic!`

So how do you decide when you should `panic!` and when you should return
`Result`? When code panics, there’s no way to recover. You could choose to call
`panic!` for any error situation, whether there’s a possible way to recover or
not, but then you’re making the decision for your callers that a situation is
unrecoverable. When you choose to return a `Result` value, you give your caller
options, rather than making the decision for them. They could choose to attempt
to recover in a way that’s appropriate for their situation, or they could
decide that actually, an `Err` value in this case is unrecoverable, so they can
call `panic!` and turn your recoverable error into an unrecoverable one.
Therefore, returning `Result` is a good default choice when you’re defining a
function that might fail.

There are a few situations in which it’s more appropriate to write code that
panics instead of returning a `Result`, but they are less common. Let’s discuss
why it’s appropriate to panic in examples, prototype code, and tests, then
situations where you as a human can know a method won’t fail that the compiler
can’t reason about, and conclude with some general guidelines on how to decide
whether to panic in library code.

### Examples, Prototype Code, and Tests: Perfectly Fine to Panic

When you’re writing an example to illustrate some concept, having robust error
handling code in the example as well can make the example less clear. In
examples, it’s understood that a call to a method like `unwrap` that could
`panic!` is meant as a placeholder for the way that you’d actually like your
application to handle errors, which can differ based on what the rest of your
code is doing.

Similarly, the `unwrap` and `expect` methods are very handy when prototyping,
before you’re ready to decide how to handle errors. They leave clear markers in
your code for when you’re ready to make your program more robust.

If a method call fails in a test, we’d want the whole test to fail, even if
that method isn’t the functionality under test. Because `panic!` is how a test
gets marked as a failure, calling `unwrap` or `expect` is exactly what makes
sense to do.

### Cases When You Have More Information Than The Compiler

It would also be appropriate to call `unwrap` when you have some other logic
that ensures the `Result` will have an `Ok` value, but the logic isn’t
something the compiler understands. You’ll still have a `Result` value that you
need to handle: whatever operation you’re calling still has the possibility of
failing in general, even though it’s logically impossible in your particular
situation. If you can ensure by manually inspecting the code that you’ll never
have an `Err` variant, it is perfectly acceptable to call `unwrap`. Here’s an
example:

```rust
use std::net::IpAddr;

let home = "127.0.0.1".parse::<IpAddr>().unwrap();
```

We’re creating an `IpAddr` instance by parsing a hardcoded string. We can see
that `127.0.0.1` is a valid IP address, so it’s acceptable to use `unwrap`
here. However, having a hardcoded, valid string doesn’t change the return type
of the `parse` method: we still get a `Result` value, and the compiler will
still make us handle the `Result` as if the `Err` variant is still a
possibility since the compiler isn’t smart enough to see that this string is
always a valid IP address. If the IP address string came from a user instead of
being hardcoded into the program, and therefore *did* have a possibility of
failure, we’d definitely want to handle the `Result` in a more robust way
instead.

### Guidelines for Error Handling

It’s advisable to have your code `panic!` when it’s possible that you could end
up in a bad state—in this context, bad state is when some assumption,
guarantee, contract, or invariant has been broken, such as when invalid values,
contradictory values, or missing values are passed to your code—plus one or
more of the following:

* The bad state is not something that’s *expected* to happen occasionally
* Your code after this point needs to rely on not being in this bad state
* There’s not a good way to encode this information in the types you use

If someone calls your code and passes in values that don’t make sense, the best
thing might be to `panic!` and alert the person using your library to the bug
in their code so that they can fix it during development. Similarly, `panic!`
is often appropriate if you’re calling external code that is out of your
control, and it returns an invalid state that you have no way of fixing.

When a bad state is reached, but it’s expected to happen no matter how well you
write your code, it’s still more appropriate to return a `Result` rather than
calling `panic!`. Examples of this include a parser being given malformed data,
or an HTTP request returning a status that indicates you have hit a rate limit.
In these cases, you should indicate that failure is an expected possibility by
returning a `Result` in order to propagate these bad states upwards so that the
caller can decide how they would like to handle the problem. To `panic!`
wouldn’t be the best way to handle these cases.

When your code performs operations on values, your code should verify the
values are valid first, and `panic!` if the values aren’t valid. This is mostly
for safety reasons: attempting to operate on invalid data can expose your code
to vulnerabilities. This is the main reason that the standard library will
`panic!` if you attempt an out-of-bounds array access: trying to access memory
that doesn’t belong to the current data structure is a common security problem.
Functions often have *contracts*: their behavior is only guaranteed if the
inputs meet particular requirements. Panicking when the contract is violated
makes sense because a contract violation always indicates a caller-side bug,
and it is not a kind of error you want callers to have to explicitly handle. In
fact, there’s no reasonable way for calling code to recover: the calling
*programmers* need to fix the code. Contracts for a function, especially when a
violation will cause a panic, should be explained in the API documentation for
the function.

Having lots of error checks in all of your functions would be verbose and
annoying, though. Luckily, you can use Rust’s type system (and thus the type
checking the compiler does) to do a lot of the checks for you. If your function
has a particular type as a parameter, you can proceed with your code’s logic
knowing that the compiler has already ensured you have a valid value. For
example, if you have a type rather than an `Option`, your program expects to
have *something* rather than *nothing*. Your code then doesn’t have to handle
two cases for the `Some` and `None` variants, it will only have one case for
definitely having a value. Code trying to pass nothing to your function won’t
even compile, so your function doesn’t have to check for that case at runtime.
Another example is using an unsigned integer type like `u32`, which ensures the
parameter is never negative.

### Creating Custom Types for Validation

Let’s take the idea of using Rust’s type system to ensure we have a valid value
one step further, and look at creating a custom type for validation. Recall the
guessing game in Chapter 2, where our code asked the user to guess a number
between 1 and 100. We actually never validated that the user’s guess was
between those numbers before checking it against our secret number, only that
it was positive. In this case, the consequences were not very dire: our output
of “Too high” or “Too low” would still be correct. It would be a useful
enhancement to guide the user towards valid guesses, though, and have different
behavior when a user guesses a number that’s out of range versus when a user
types, for example, letters instead.

One way to do this would be to parse the guess as an `i32` instead of only a
`u32`, to allow potentially negative numbers, then add a check for the number
being in range:

```rust,ignore
loop {
    // snip

    let guess: i32 = match guess.trim().parse() {
        Ok(num) => num,
        Err(_) => continue,
    };

    if guess < 1 || guess > 100 {
        println!("The secret number will be between 1 and 100.");
        continue;
    }

    match guess.cmp(&secret_number) {
    // snip
}
```

The `if` expression checks to see if our value is out of range, tells the user
about the problem, and calls `continue` to start the next iteration of the loop
and ask for another guess. After the `if` expression, we can proceed with the
comparisons between `guess` and the secret number knowing that `guess` is
between 1 and 100.

However, this is not an ideal solution: if it was absolutely critical that the
program only operated on values between 1 and 100, and it had many functions
with this requirement, it would be tedious (and potentially impact performance)
to have a check like this in every function.

Instead, we can make a new type and put the validations in a function to create
an instance of the type rather than repeating the validations everywhere. That
way, it’s safe for functions to use the new type in their signatures and
confidently use the values they receive. Listing 9-8 shows one way to define a
`Guess` type that will only create an instance of `Guess` if the `new` function
receives a value between 1 and 100:

```rust
struct Guess {
    value: u32,
}

impl Guess {
    pub fn new(value: u32) -> Guess {
        if value < 1 || value > 100 {
            panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {}.", value);
        }

        Guess {
            value: value,
        }
    }

    pub fn value(&self) -> u32 {
        self.value
    }
}
```


Listing 9-8: A `Guess` type that will only continue with values between 1 and
100

First, we define a struct named `Guess` that has a field named `value` that
holds a `u32`. This is where the number will be stored.

Then we implement an associated function named `new` on `Guess` that creates
instances of `Guess` values. The `new` function is defined to have one
parameter named `value` of type `u32` and to return a `Guess`. The code in the
body of the `new` function tests `value` to make sure it is between 1 and 100.
If `value` doesn’t pass this test, we call `panic!`, which will alert the
programmer who is calling this code that they have a bug they need to fix,
since creating a `Guess` with a `value` outside this range would violate the
contract that `Guess::new` is relying on. The conditions in which `Guess::new`
might panic should be discussed in its public-facing API documentation; we’ll
cover documentation conventions around indicating the possibility of a `panic!`
in the API documentation that you create in Chapter 14. If `value` does pass
the test, we create a new `Guess` with its `value` field set to the `value`
parameter and return the `Guess`.

Next, we implement a method named `value` that borrows `self`, doesn’t have any
other parameters, and returns a `u32`. This is a kind of method sometimes
called a *getter*, since its purpose is to get some data from its fields and
return it. This public method is necessary because the `value` field of the
`Guess` struct is private. It’s important that the `value` field is private so
that code using the `Guess` struct is not allowed to set `value` directly:
callers *must* use the `Guess::new` function to create an instance of `Guess`,
which ensures there’s no way for a `Guess` to have a `value` that hasn’t been
checked by the conditions in the `Guess::new` function.

A function that has a parameter or returns only numbers between 1 and 100 could
then declare in its signature that it takes or returns a `Guess` rather than a
`u32`, and wouldn’t need to do any additional checks in its body.

## Summary

Rust’s error handling features are designed to help you write more robust code.
The `panic!` macro signals that your program is in a state it can’t handle, and
lets you tell the process to stop instead of trying to proceed with invalid or
incorrect values. The `Result` enum uses Rust’s type system to indicate that
operations might fail in a way that your code could recover from. You can use
`Result` to tell code that calls your code that it needs to handle potential
success or failure as well. Using `panic!` and `Result` in the appropriate
situations will make your code more reliable in the face of inevitable problems.

Now that we’ve seen useful ways that the standard library uses generics with
the `Option` and `Result` enums, let’s talk about how generics work and how you
can make use of them in your code.
