## Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module Tree

To show Rust where to find an item in a module tree, we use a path in the same way we use a path when navigating a filesystem. If we want to call a function, we need to know its path.

A path can take two forms:

- An absolute path starts from a crate root by using a crate name (for code from an external crate) or a literal `crate` (for code from the current crate).
- A relative path starts from the current module and uses `self`, `super`, or an identifier in the current module.

Both absolute and relative paths are followed by one or more identifiers separated by double colons (`::`).

Let’s return to the example in Listing 7-1. How do we call the `add_to_waitlist` function? This is the same as asking, what’s the path of the `add_to_waitlist` function? Listing 7-3 contains Listing 7-1 with some of the modules and functions removed. We’ll show two ways to call the `add_to_waitlist` function from a new function `eat_at_restaurant` defined in the crate root. The `eat_at_restaurant` function is part of our library crate’s public API, so we mark it with the `pub` keyword. In the “Exposing Paths with the `pub` Keyword” section, we’ll go into more detail about `pub`. Note that this example won’t compile just yet; we’ll explain why in a bit.

Filename: src/lib.rs

    mod front_of_house {
        mod hosting {
            fn add_to_waitlist() {}
        }
    }

    pub fn eat_at_restaurant() {
        // Absolute path
        crate::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();

        // Relative path
        front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();
    }

Listing 7-3: Calling the `add_to_waitlist` function using absolute and relative paths

The first time we call the `add_to_waitlist` function in `eat_at_restaurant`, we use an absolute path. The `add_to_waitlist` function is defined in the same crate as `eat_at_restaurant`, which means we can use the `crate` keyword to start an absolute path.

After `crate`, we include each of the successive modules until we make our way to `add_to_waitlist`. You can imagine a filesystem with the same structure, and we’d specify the path `/front_of_house/hosting/add_to_waitlist` to run the `add_to_waitlist` program; using the `crate` name to start from the crate root is like using `/` to start from the filesystem root in your shell.

The second time we call `add_to_waitlist` in `eat_at_restaurant`, we use a relative path. The path starts with `front_of_house`, the name of the module defined at the same level of the module tree as `eat_at_restaurant`. Here the filesystem equivalent would be using the path `front_of_house/hosting/add_to_waitlist`. Starting with a name means that the path is relative.

Choosing whether to use a relative or absolute path is a decision you’ll make based on your project. The decision should depend on whether you’re more likely to move item definition code separately from or together with the code that uses the item. For example, if we move the `front_of_house` module and the `eat_at_restaurant` function into a module named `customer_experience`, we’d need to update the absolute path to `add_to_waitlist`, but the relative path would still be valid. However, if we moved the `eat_at_restaurant` function separately into a module named `dining`, the absolute path to the `add_to_waitlist` call would stay the same, but the relative path would need to be updated. Our preference is to specify absolute paths because it’s more likely we’ll want to move code definitions and item calls independently of each other.

Let’s try to compile Listing 7-3 and find out why it won’t compile yet! The error we get is shown in Listing 7-4.

    $ cargo build
       Compiling restaurant v0.1.0 (file:///projects/restaurant)
    error[E0603]: module `hosting` is private
     --> src/lib.rs:9:28
      |
    9 |     crate::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();
      |                            ^^^^^^^ private module
      |
    note: the module `hosting` is defined here
     --> src/lib.rs:2:5
      |
    2 |     mod hosting {
      |     ^^^^^^^^^^^

    error[E0603]: module `hosting` is private
      --> src/lib.rs:12:21
       |
    12 |     front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();
       |                     ^^^^^^^ private module
       |
    note: the module `hosting` is defined here
      --> src/lib.rs:2:5
       |
    2  |     mod hosting {
       |     ^^^^^^^^^^^

    For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0603`.
    error: could not compile `restaurant` due to 2 previous errors

Listing 7-4: Compiler errors from building the code in Listing 7-3

The error messages say that module `hosting` is private. In other words, we have the correct paths for the `hosting` module and the `add_to_waitlist` function, but Rust won’t let us use them because it doesn’t have access to the private sections.

Modules aren’t useful only for organizing your code. They also define Rust’s privacy boundary: the line that encapsulates the implementation details external code isn’t allowed to know about, call, or rely on. So, if you want to make an item like a function or struct private, you put it in a module.

The way privacy works in Rust is that all items (functions, methods, structs, enums, modules, and constants) are private by default. Items in a parent module can’t use the private items inside child modules, but items in child modules can use the items in their ancestor modules. The reason is that child modules wrap and hide their implementation details, but the child modules can see the context in which they’re defined. To continue with the restaurant metaphor, think of the privacy rules as being like the back office of a restaurant: what goes on in there is private to restaurant customers, but office managers can see and do everything in the restaurant in which they operate.

Rust chose to have the module system function this way so that hiding inner implementation details is the default. That way, you know which parts of the inner code you can change without breaking outer code. But you can expose inner parts of child modules’ code to outer ancestor modules by using the `pub` keyword to make an item public.

### Exposing Paths with the `pub` Keyword

Let’s return to the error in Listing 7-4 that told us the `hosting` module is private. We want the `eat_at_restaurant` function in the parent module to have access to the `add_to_waitlist` function in the child module, so we mark the `hosting` module with the `pub` keyword, as shown in Listing 7-5.

Filename: src/lib.rs

    mod front_of_house {
        pub mod hosting {
            fn add_to_waitlist() {}
        }
    }

    pub fn eat_at_restaurant() {
        // Absolute path
        crate::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();

        // Relative path
        front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();
    }

Listing 7-5: Declaring the `hosting` module as `pub` to use it from `eat_at_restaurant`

Unfortunately, the code in Listing 7-5 still results in an error, as shown in Listing 7-6.

    $ cargo build
       Compiling restaurant v0.1.0 (file:///projects/restaurant)
    error[E0603]: function `add_to_waitlist` is private
     --> src/lib.rs:9:37
      |
    9 |     crate::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();
      |                                     ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ private function
      |
    note: the function `add_to_waitlist` is defined here
     --> src/lib.rs:3:9
      |
    3 |         fn add_to_waitlist() {}
      |         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

    error[E0603]: function `add_to_waitlist` is private
      --> src/lib.rs:12:30
       |
    12 |     front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();
       |                              ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ private function
       |
    note: the function `add_to_waitlist` is defined here
      --> src/lib.rs:3:9
       |
    3  |         fn add_to_waitlist() {}
       |         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

    For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0603`.
    error: could not compile `restaurant` due to 2 previous errors

Listing 7-6: Compiler errors from building the code in Listing 7-5

What happened? Adding the `pub` keyword in front of `mod hosting` makes the module public. With this change, if we can access `front_of_house`, we can access `hosting`. But the contents of `hosting` are still private; making the module public doesn’t make its contents public. The `pub` keyword on a module only lets code in its ancestor modules refer to it.

The errors in Listing 7-6 say that the `add_to_waitlist` function is private. The privacy rules apply to structs, enums, functions, and methods as well as modules.

Let’s also make the `add_to_waitlist` function public by adding the `pub` keyword before its definition, as in Listing 7-7.

Filename: src/lib.rs

    mod front_of_house {
        pub mod hosting {
            pub fn add_to_waitlist() {}
        }
    }

    pub fn eat_at_restaurant() {
        // Absolute path
        crate::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();

        // Relative path
        front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist();
    }

Listing 7-7: Adding the `pub` keyword to `mod hosting` and `fn add_to_waitlist` lets us call the function from `eat_at_restaurant`

Now the code will compile! Let’s look at the absolute and the relative path and double-check why adding the `pub` keyword lets us use these paths in `add_to_waitlist` with respect to the privacy rules.

In the absolute path, we start with `crate`, the root of our crate’s module tree. Then the `front_of_house` module is defined in the crate root. The `front_of_house` module isn’t public, but because the `eat_at_restaurant` function is defined in the same module as `front_of_house` (that is, `eat_at_restaurant` and `front_of_house` are siblings), we can refer to `front_of_house` from `eat_at_restaurant`. Next is the `hosting` module marked with `pub`. We can access the parent module of `hosting`, so we can access `hosting`. Finally, the `add_to_waitlist` function is marked with `pub` and we can access its parent module, so this function call works!

In the relative path, the logic is the same as the absolute path except for the first step: rather than starting from the crate root, the path starts from `front_of_house`. The `front_of_house` module is defined within the same module as `eat_at_restaurant`, so the relative path starting from the module in which `eat_at_restaurant` is defined works. Then, because `hosting` and `add_to_waitlist` are marked with `pub`, the rest of the path works, and this function call is valid!

If you plan on sharing your library crate so other projects can use your code, your public API is your contract with users of your crate about how they interact with your code. There are many considerations around managing changes to your public API to make it easier for people to depend on your crate. These considerations are out of the scope of this book; if you’re interested in this topic, see The Rust API Guidelines.

> #### Best Practices for Packages with a Binary and a Library

> We mentioned a package can contain both a src/main.rs binary crate root as well as a src/lib.rs library crate root, and both crates will have the package name by default. Typically, packages with this pattern will have just enough code in the binary crate to start an executable that calls code with the library crate. This lets other projects benefit from the most functionality that the package provides, because the library crate’s code can be shared.

> The module tree should be defined in src/lib.rs. Then, any public items can be used in the binary crate by starting paths with the name of the package. The binary crate becomes a user of the library crate just like a completely external crate would use the library crate: it can only use the public API. This helps you design a good API; not only are you the author, you’re also a client!

> In Chapter 12, we’ll demonstrate this organizational practice with a command-line program that will contain both a binary crate and a library crate.

### Starting Relative Paths with `super`

We can also construct relative paths that begin in the parent module by using `super` at the start of the path. This is like starting a filesystem path with the `..` syntax. Why would we want to do this?

Consider the code in Listing 7-8 that models the situation in which a chef fixes an incorrect order and personally brings it out to the customer. The function `fix_incorrect_order` defined in the `back_of_house` module calls the function `deliver_order` defined in the parent module by specifying the path to `deliver_order` starting with `super`:

Filename: src/lib.rs

    fn deliver_order() {}

    mod back_of_house {
        fn fix_incorrect_order() {
            cook_order();
            super::deliver_order();
        }

        fn cook_order() {}
    }

Listing 7-8: Calling a function using a relative path starting with `super`

The `fix_incorrect_order` function is in the `back_of_house` module, so we can use `super` to go to the parent module of `back_of_house`, which in this case is `crate`, the root. From there, we look for `deliver_order` and find it. Success! We think the `back_of_house` module and the `deliver_order` function are likely to stay in the same relationship to each other and get moved together should we decide to reorganize the crate’s module tree. Therefore, we used `super` so we’ll have fewer places to update code in the future if this code gets moved to a different module.

### Making Structs and Enums Public

We can also use `pub` to designate structs and enums as public, but there are a few extra details. If we use `pub` before a struct definition, we make the struct public, but the struct’s fields will still be private. We can make each field public or not on a case-by-case basis. In Listing 7-9, we’ve defined a public `back_of_house::Breakfast` struct with a public `toast` field but a private `seasonal_fruit` field. This models the case in a restaurant where the customer can pick the type of bread that comes with a meal, but the chef decides which fruit accompanies the meal based on what’s in season and in stock. The available fruit changes quickly, so customers can’t choose the fruit or even see which fruit they’ll get.

Filename: src/lib.rs

    mod back_of_house {
        pub struct Breakfast {
            pub toast: String,
            seasonal_fruit: String,
        }

        impl Breakfast {
            pub fn summer(toast: &str) -> Breakfast {
                Breakfast {
                    toast: String::from(toast),
                    seasonal_fruit: String::from("peaches"),
                }
            }
        }
    }

    pub fn eat_at_restaurant() {
        // Order a breakfast in the summer with Rye toast
        let mut meal = back_of_house::Breakfast::summer("Rye");
        // Change our mind about what bread we'd like
        meal.toast = String::from("Wheat");
        println!("I'd like {} toast please", meal.toast);

        // The next line won't compile if we uncomment it; we're not allowed
        // to see or modify the seasonal fruit that comes with the meal
        // meal.seasonal_fruit = String::from("blueberries");
    }

Listing 7-9: A struct with some public fields and some private fields

Because the `toast` field in the `back_of_house::Breakfast` struct is public, in `eat_at_restaurant` we can write and read to the `toast` field using dot notation. Notice that we can’t use the `seasonal_fruit` field in `eat_at_restaurant` because `seasonal_fruit` is private. Try uncommenting the line modifying the `seasonal_fruit` field value to see what error you get!

Also, note that because `back_of_house::Breakfast` has a private field, the struct needs to provide a public associated function that constructs an instance of `Breakfast` (we’ve named it `summer` here). If `Breakfast` didn’t have such a function, we couldn’t create an instance of `Breakfast` in `eat_at_restaurant` because we couldn’t set the value of the private `seasonal_fruit` field in `eat_at_restaurant`.

In contrast, if we make an enum public, all of its variants are then public. We only need the `pub` before the `enum` keyword, as shown in Listing 7-10.

Filename: src/lib.rs

    mod back_of_house {
        pub enum Appetizer {
            Soup,
            Salad,
        }
    }

    pub fn eat_at_restaurant() {
        let order1 = back_of_house::Appetizer::Soup;
        let order2 = back_of_house::Appetizer::Salad;
    }

Listing 7-10: Designating an enum as public makes all its variants public

Because we made the `Appetizer` enum public, we can use the `Soup` and `Salad` variants in `eat_at_restaurant`. Enums aren’t very useful unless their variants are public; it would be annoying to have to annotate all enum variants with `pub` in every case, so the default for enum variants is to be public. Structs are often useful without their fields being public, so struct fields follow the general rule of everything being private by default unless annotated with `pub`.

There’s one more situation involving `pub` that we haven’t covered, and that is our last module system feature: the `use` keyword. We’ll cover `use` by itself first, and then we’ll show how to combine `pub` and `use`.