## Traits: Defining Shared Behavior

A trait defines the functionality a particular type has and can share with other types. We can use traits to define shared behavior in an abstract way. We can use trait bounds to specify that a generic type can be any type that has certain behavior.

Note: Traits are similar to a feature often called interfaces in other languages, although with some differences.

### Defining a Trait

A type’s behavior consists of the methods we can call on that type. Different types share the same behavior if we can call the same methods on all of those types. Trait definitions are a way to group method signatures together to define a set of behaviors necessary to accomplish some purpose.

For example, let’s say we have multiple structs that hold various kinds and amounts of text: a `NewsArticle` struct that holds a news story filed in a particular location and a `Tweet` that can have, at most, 280 characters along with metadata that indicates whether it was a new tweet, a retweet, or a reply to another tweet.

We want to make a media aggregator library crate named `aggregator` that can display summaries of data that might be stored in a `NewsArticle` or `Tweet` instance. To do this, we need a summary from each type, and we’ll request that summary by calling a `summarize` method on an instance. Listing 10-12 shows the definition of a public `Summary` trait that expresses this behavior.

Filename: src/lib.rs

    pub trait Summary {
        fn summarize(&self) -> String;
    }

Listing 10-12: A `Summary` trait that consists of the behavior provided by a `summarize` method

Here, we declare a trait using the `trait` keyword and then the trait’s name, which is `Summary` in this case. We also declare the trait as `pub` so that crates depending on this crate can make use of this trait too, as we’ll see in a few examples. Inside the curly brackets, we declare the method signatures that describe the behaviors of the types that implement this trait, which in this case is `fn summarize(&self) -> String`.

After the method signature, instead of providing an implementation within curly brackets, we use a semicolon. Each type implementing this trait must provide its own custom behavior for the body of the method. The compiler will enforce that any type that has the `Summary` trait will have the method `summarize` defined with this signature exactly.

A trait can have multiple methods in its body: the method signatures are listed one per line, and each line ends in a semicolon.

### Implementing a Trait on a Type

Now that we’ve defined the desired signatures of the `Summary` trait’s methods, we can implement it on the types in our media aggregator. Listing 10-13 shows an implementation of the `Summary` trait on the `NewsArticle` struct that uses the headline, the author, and the location to create the return value of `summarize`. For the `Tweet` struct, we define `summarize` as the username followed by the entire text of the tweet, assuming that the tweet content is already limited to 280 characters.

Filename: src/lib.rs

    pub trait Summary {
        fn summarize(&self) -> String;
    }

    pub struct NewsArticle {
        pub headline: String,
        pub location: String,
        pub author: String,
        pub content: String,
    }

    impl Summary for NewsArticle {
        fn summarize(&self) -> String {
            format!("{}, by {} ({})", self.headline, self.author, self.location)
        }
    }

    pub struct Tweet {
        pub username: String,
        pub content: String,
        pub reply: bool,
        pub retweet: bool,
    }

    impl Summary for Tweet {
        fn summarize(&self) -> String {
            format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
        }
    }

Listing 10-13: Implementing the `Summary` trait on the `NewsArticle` and `Tweet` types

Implementing a trait on a type is similar to implementing regular methods. The difference is that after `impl`, we put the trait name we want to implement, then use the `for` keyword, and then specify the name of the type we want to implement the trait for. Within the `impl` block, we put the method signatures that the trait definition has defined. Instead of adding a semicolon after each signature, we use curly brackets and fill in the method body with the specific behavior that we want the methods of the trait to have for the particular type.

Now that the library has implemented the `Summary` trait on `NewsArticle` and `Tweet`, users of the crate can call the trait methods on instances of `NewsArticle` and `Tweet` in the same way we call regular methods. The only difference is that the user must bring the trait into scope as well as the types. Here’s an example of how a binary crate could use our `aggregator` library crate:

    use aggregator::{Summary, Tweet};

    fn main() {
        let tweet = Tweet {
            username: String::from("horse_ebooks"),
            content: String::from(
                "of course, as you probably already know, people",
            ),
            reply: false,
            retweet: false,
        };

        println!("1 new tweet: {}", tweet.summarize());
    }

This code prints `1 new tweet: horse_ebooks: of course, as you probably already know, people`.

Other crates that depend on the `aggregator` crate can also bring the `Summary` trait into scope to implement `Summary` on their own types. One restriction to note is that we can implement a trait on a type only if either the trait or the type, or both, are local to our crate. For example, we can implement standard library traits like `Display` on a custom type like `Tweet` as part of our `aggregator` crate functionality because the type `Tweet` is local to our `aggregator` crate. We can also implement `Summary` on `Vec<T>` in our `aggregator` crate because the trait `Summary` is local to our `aggregator` crate.

But we can’t implement external traits on external types. For example, we can’t implement the `Display` trait on `Vec<T>` within our `aggregator` crate because `Display` and `Vec<T>` are both defined in the standard library and aren’t local to our `aggregator` crate. This restriction is part of a property called coherence, and more specifically the orphan rule, so named because the parent type is not present. This rule ensures that other people’s code can’t break your code and vice versa. Without the rule, two crates could implement the same trait for the same type, and Rust wouldn’t know which implementation to use.

### Default Implementations

Sometimes it’s useful to have default behavior for some or all of the methods in a trait instead of requiring implementations for all methods on every type. Then, as we implement the trait on a particular type, we can keep or override each method’s default behavior.

In Listing 10-14, we specify a default string for the `summarize` method of the `Summary` trait instead of only defining the method signature, as we did in Listing 10-12.

Filename: src/lib.rs

    pub trait Summary {
        fn summarize(&self) -> String {
            String::from("(Read more...)")
        }
    }

    pub struct NewsArticle {
        pub headline: String,
        pub location: String,
        pub author: String,
        pub content: String,
    }

    impl Summary for NewsArticle {}

    pub struct Tweet {
        pub username: String,
        pub content: String,
        pub reply: bool,
        pub retweet: bool,
    }

    impl Summary for Tweet {
        fn summarize(&self) -> String {
            format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
        }
    }

Listing 10-14: Defining a `Summary` trait with a default implementation of the `summarize` method

To use a default implementation to summarize instances of `NewsArticle`, we specify an empty `impl` block with `impl Summary for NewsArticle {}`.

Even though we’re no longer defining the `summarize` method on `NewsArticle` directly, we’ve provided a default implementation and specified that `NewsArticle` implements the `Summary` trait. As a result, we can still call the `summarize` method on an instance of `NewsArticle`, like this:

    use aggregator::{self, NewsArticle, Summary};

    fn main() {
        let article = NewsArticle {
            headline: String::from("Penguins win the Stanley Cup Championship!"),
            location: String::from("Pittsburgh, PA, USA"),
            author: String::from("Iceburgh"),
            content: String::from(
                "The Pittsburgh Penguins once again are the best \
                 hockey team in the NHL.",
            ),
        };

        println!("New article available! {}", article.summarize());
    }

This code prints `New article available! (Read more...)`.

Creating a default implementation doesn’t require us to change anything about the implementation of `Summary` on `Tweet` in Listing 10-13. The reason is that the syntax for overriding a default implementation is the same as the syntax for implementing a trait method that doesn’t have a default implementation.

Default implementations can call other methods in the same trait, even if those other methods don’t have a default implementation. In this way, a trait can provide a lot of useful functionality and only require implementors to specify a small part of it. For example, we could define the `Summary` trait to have a `summarize_author` method whose implementation is required, and then define a `summarize` method that has a default implementation that calls the `summarize_author` method:

    pub trait Summary {
        fn summarize_author(&self) -> String;

        fn summarize(&self) -> String {
            format!("(Read more from {}...)", self.summarize_author())
        }
    }

    pub struct Tweet {
        pub username: String,
        pub content: String,
        pub reply: bool,
        pub retweet: bool,
    }

    impl Summary for Tweet {
        fn summarize_author(&self) -> String {
            format!("@{}", self.username)
        }
    }

To use this version of `Summary`, we only need to define `summarize_author` when we implement the trait on a type:

    pub trait Summary {
        fn summarize_author(&self) -> String;

        fn summarize(&self) -> String {
            format!("(Read more from {}...)", self.summarize_author())
        }
    }

    pub struct Tweet {
        pub username: String,
        pub content: String,
        pub reply: bool,
        pub retweet: bool,
    }

    impl Summary for Tweet {
        fn summarize_author(&self) -> String {
            format!("@{}", self.username)
        }
    }

After we define `summarize_author`, we can call `summarize` on instances of the `Tweet` struct, and the default implementation of `summarize` will call the definition of `summarize_author` that we’ve provided. Because we’ve implemented `summarize_author`, the `Summary` trait has given us the behavior of the `summarize` method without requiring us to write any more code. Here’s what that looks like:

    use aggregator::{self, Summary, Tweet};

    fn main() {
        let tweet = Tweet {
            username: String::from("horse_ebooks"),
            content: String::from(
                "of course, as you probably already know, people",
            ),
            reply: false,
            retweet: false,
        };

        println!("1 new tweet: {}", tweet.summarize());
    }

This code prints `1 new tweet: (Read more from @horse_ebooks...)`.

Note that it isn’t possible to call the default implementation from an overriding implementation of that same method.

### Traits as Parameters

Now that you know how to define and implement traits, we can explore how to use traits to define functions that accept many different types. We’ll use the `Summary` trait we implemented on the `NewsArticle` and `Tweet` types in Listing 10-13 to define a `notify` function that calls the `summarize` method on its `item` parameter, which is of some type that implements the `Summary` trait. To do this, we use the `impl Trait` syntax, like this:

    pub trait Summary {
        fn summarize(&self) -> String;
    }

    pub struct NewsArticle {
        pub headline: String,
        pub location: String,
        pub author: String,
        pub content: String,
    }

    impl Summary for NewsArticle {
        fn summarize(&self) -> String {
            format!("{}, by {} ({})", self.headline, self.author, self.location)
        }
    }

    pub struct Tweet {
        pub username: String,
        pub content: String,
        pub reply: bool,
        pub retweet: bool,
    }

    impl Summary for Tweet {
        fn summarize(&self) -> String {
            format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
        }
    }

    pub fn notify(item: &impl Summary) {
        println!("Breaking news! {}", item.summarize());
    }

Instead of a concrete type for the `item` parameter, we specify the `impl` keyword and the trait name. This parameter accepts any type that implements the specified trait. In the body of `notify`, we can call any methods on `item` that come from the `Summary` trait, such as `summarize`. We can call `notify` and pass in any instance of `NewsArticle` or `Tweet`. Code that calls the function with any other type, such as a `String` or an `i32`, won’t compile because those types don’t implement `Summary`.

#### Trait Bound Syntax

The `impl Trait` syntax works for straightforward cases but is actually syntax sugar for a longer form known as a trait bound; it looks like this:

    pub fn notify<T: Summary>(item: &T) {
        println!("Breaking news! {}", item.summarize());
    }

This longer form is equivalent to the example in the previous section but is more verbose. We place trait bounds with the declaration of the generic type parameter after a colon and inside angle brackets.

The `impl Trait` syntax is convenient and makes for more concise code in simple cases, while the fuller trait bound syntax can express more complexity in other cases. For example, we can have two parameters that implement `Summary`. Doing so with the `impl Trait` syntax looks like this:

    pub fn notify(item1: &impl Summary, item2: &impl Summary) {

Using `impl Trait` is appropriate if we want this function to allow `item1` and `item2` to have different types (as long as both types implement `Summary`). If we want to force both parameters to have the same type, however, we must use a trait bound, like this:

    pub fn notify<T: Summary>(item1: &T, item2: &T) {

The generic type `T` specified as the type of the `item1` and `item2` parameters constrains the function such that the concrete type of the value passed as an argument for `item1` and `item2` must be the same.

#### Specifying Multiple Trait Bounds with the `+` Syntax

We can also specify more than one trait bound. Say we wanted `notify` to use display formatting as well as `summarize` on `item`: we specify in the `notify` definition that `item` must implement both `Display` and `Summary`. We can do so using the `+` syntax:

    pub fn notify(item: &(impl Summary + Display)) {

The `+` syntax is also valid with trait bounds on generic types:

    pub fn notify<T: Summary + Display>(item: &T) {

With the two trait bounds specified, the body of `notify` can call `summarize` and use `{}` to format `item`.

#### Clearer Trait Bounds with `where` Clauses

Using too many trait bounds has its downsides. Each generic has its own trait bounds, so functions with multiple generic type parameters can contain lots of trait bound information between the function’s name and its parameter list, making the function signature hard to read. For this reason, Rust has alternate syntax for specifying trait bounds inside a `where` clause after the function signature. So, instead of writing this:

    fn some_function<T: Display + Clone, U: Clone + Debug>(t: &T, u: &U) -> i32 {

we can use a `where` clause, like this:

    fn some_function<T, U>(t: &T, u: &U) -> i32
    where
        T: Display + Clone,
        U: Clone + Debug,
    {
        unimplemented!()
    }

This function’s signature is less cluttered: the function name, parameter list, and return type are close together, similar to a function without lots of trait bounds.

### Returning Types That Implement Traits

We can also use the `impl Trait` syntax in the return position to return a value of some type that implements a trait, as shown here:

    pub trait Summary {
        fn summarize(&self) -> String;
    }

    pub struct NewsArticle {
        pub headline: String,
        pub location: String,
        pub author: String,
        pub content: String,
    }

    impl Summary for NewsArticle {
        fn summarize(&self) -> String {
            format!("{}, by {} ({})", self.headline, self.author, self.location)
        }
    }

    pub struct Tweet {
        pub username: String,
        pub content: String,
        pub reply: bool,
        pub retweet: bool,
    }

    impl Summary for Tweet {
        fn summarize(&self) -> String {
            format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
        }
    }

    fn returns_summarizable() -> impl Summary {
        Tweet {
            username: String::from("horse_ebooks"),
            content: String::from(
                "of course, as you probably already know, people",
            ),
            reply: false,
            retweet: false,
        }
    }

By using `impl Summary` for the return type, we specify that the `returns_summarizable` function returns some type that implements the `Summary` trait without naming the concrete type. In this case, `returns_summarizable` returns a `Tweet`, but the code calling this function doesn’t need to know that.

The ability to specify a return type only by the trait it implements is especially useful in the context of closures and iterators, which we cover in Chapter 13. Closures and iterators create types that only the compiler knows or types that are very long to specify. The `impl Trait` syntax lets you concisely specify that a function returns some type that implements the `Iterator` trait without needing to write out a very long type.

However, you can only use `impl Trait` if you’re returning a single type. For example, this code that returns either a `NewsArticle` or a `Tweet` with the return type specified as `impl Summary` wouldn’t work:

    pub trait Summary {
        fn summarize(&self) -> String;
    }

    pub struct NewsArticle {
        pub headline: String,
        pub location: String,
        pub author: String,
        pub content: String,
    }

    impl Summary for NewsArticle {
        fn summarize(&self) -> String {
            format!("{}, by {} ({})", self.headline, self.author, self.location)
        }
    }

    pub struct Tweet {
        pub username: String,
        pub content: String,
        pub reply: bool,
        pub retweet: bool,
    }

    impl Summary for Tweet {
        fn summarize(&self) -> String {
            format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
        }
    }

    fn returns_summarizable(switch: bool) -> impl Summary {
        if switch {
            NewsArticle {
                headline: String::from(
                    "Penguins win the Stanley Cup Championship!",
                ),
                location: String::from("Pittsburgh, PA, USA"),
                author: String::from("Iceburgh"),
                content: String::from(
                    "The Pittsburgh Penguins once again are the best \
                     hockey team in the NHL.",
                ),
            }
        } else {
            Tweet {
                username: String::from("horse_ebooks"),
                content: String::from(
                    "of course, as you probably already know, people",
                ),
                reply: false,
                retweet: false,
            }
        }
    }

Returning either a `NewsArticle` or a `Tweet` isn’t allowed due to restrictions around how the `impl Trait` syntax is implemented in the compiler. We’ll cover how to write a function with this behavior in the “Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types” section of Chapter 18.

### Using Trait Bounds to Conditionally Implement Methods

By using a trait bound with an `impl` block that uses generic type parameters, we can implement methods conditionally for types that implement the specified traits. For example, the type `Pair<T>` in Listing 10-15 always implements the `new` function to return a new instance of `Pair<T>` (recall from the “Defining Methods” section of Chapter 5 that `Self` is a type alias for the type of the `impl` block, which in this case is `Pair<T>`). But in the next `impl` block, `Pair<T>` only implements the `cmp_display` method if its inner type `T` implements the `PartialOrd` trait that enables comparison and the `Display` trait that enables printing.

Filename: src/lib.rs

    use std::fmt::Display;

    struct Pair<T> {
        x: T,
        y: T,
    }

    impl<T> Pair<T> {
        fn new(x: T, y: T) -> Self {
            Self { x, y }
        }
    }

    impl<T: Display + PartialOrd> Pair<T> {
        fn cmp_display(&self) {
            if self.x >= self.y {
                println!("The largest member is x = {}", self.x);
            } else {
                println!("The largest member is y = {}", self.y);
            }
        }
    }

Listing 10-15: Conditionally implementing methods on a generic type depending on trait bounds

We can also conditionally implement a trait for any type that implements another trait. Implementations of a trait on any type that satisfies the trait bounds are called blanket implementations and are used extensively in the Rust standard library. For example, the standard library implements the `ToString` trait on any type that implements the `Display` trait. The `impl` block in the standard library looks similar to this code:

    impl<T: Display> ToString for T {
        // --snip--
    }

Because the standard library has this blanket implementation, we can call the `to_string` method defined by the `ToString` trait on any type that implements the `Display` trait. For example, we can turn integers into their corresponding `String` values like this because integers implement `Display`:

    #![allow(unused)]
    fn main() {
    let s = 3.to_string();
    }

Blanket implementations appear in the documentation for the trait in the “Implementors” section.

Traits and trait bounds let us write code that uses generic type parameters to reduce duplication but also specify to the compiler that we want the generic type to have particular behavior. The compiler can then use the trait bound information to check that all the concrete types used with our code provide the correct behavior. In dynamically typed languages, we would get an error at runtime if we called a method on a type which didn’t define the method. But Rust moves these errors to compile time so we’re forced to fix the problems before our code is even able to run. Additionally, we don’t have to write code that checks for behavior at runtime because we’ve already checked at compile time. Doing so improves performance without having to give up the flexibility of generics.