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# Visualization Gallery

This notebook shows common visualization issues encountered in xarray.

    [1]:

    import cartopy.crs as ccrs
    import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
    import xarray as xr

    %matplotlib inline

Load example dataset:

    [2]:

    ds = xr.tutorial.load_dataset("air_temperature")

    ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    gaierror                                  Traceback (most recent call last)
    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/urllib3/connection.py:198, in HTTPConnection._new_conn(self)
        197 try:
    --> 198     sock = connection.create_connection(
        199         (self._dns_host, self.port),
        200         self.timeout,
        201         source_address=self.source_address,
        202         socket_options=self.socket_options,
        203     )
        204 except socket.gaierror as e:

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/urllib3/util/connection.py:60, in create_connection(address, timeout, source_address, socket_options)
         58     raise LocationParseError(f"'{host}', label empty or too long") from None
    ---> 60 for res in socket.getaddrinfo(host, port, family, socket.SOCK_STREAM):
         61     af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res

    File /usr/lib/python3.13/socket.py:977, in getaddrinfo(host, port, family, type, proto, flags)
        976 addrlist = []
    --> 977 for res in _socket.getaddrinfo(host, port, family, type, proto, flags):
        978     af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res

    gaierror: [Errno -2] Name or service not known

    The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

    NameResolutionError                       Traceback (most recent call last)
    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/urllib3/connectionpool.py:787, in HTTPConnectionPool.urlopen(self, method, url, body, headers, retries, redirect, assert_same_host, timeout, pool_timeout, release_conn, chunked, body_pos, preload_content, decode_content, **response_kw)
        786 # Make the request on the HTTPConnection object
    --> 787 response = self._make_request(
        788     conn,
        789     method,
        790     url,
        791     timeout=timeout_obj,
        792     body=body,
        793     headers=headers,
        794     chunked=chunked,
        795     retries=retries,
        796     response_conn=response_conn,
        797     preload_content=preload_content,
        798     decode_content=decode_content,
        799     **response_kw,
        800 )
        802 # Everything went great!

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/urllib3/connectionpool.py:488, in HTTPConnectionPool._make_request(self, conn, method, url, body, headers, retries, timeout, chunked, response_conn, preload_content, decode_content, enforce_content_length)
        487         new_e = _wrap_proxy_error(new_e, conn.proxy.scheme)
    --> 488     raise new_e
        490 # conn.request() calls http.client.*.request, not the method in
        491 # urllib3.request. It also calls makefile (recv) on the socket.

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/urllib3/connectionpool.py:464, in HTTPConnectionPool._make_request(self, conn, method, url, body, headers, retries, timeout, chunked, response_conn, preload_content, decode_content, enforce_content_length)
        463 try:
    --> 464     self._validate_conn(conn)
        465 except (SocketTimeout, BaseSSLError) as e:

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/urllib3/connectionpool.py:1093, in HTTPSConnectionPool._validate_conn(self, conn)
       1092 if conn.is_closed:
    -> 1093     conn.connect()
       1095 # TODO revise this, see https://github.com/urllib3/urllib3/issues/2791

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/urllib3/connection.py:704, in HTTPSConnection.connect(self)
        703 sock: socket.socket | ssl.SSLSocket
    --> 704 self.sock = sock = self._new_conn()
        705 server_hostname: str = self.host

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/urllib3/connection.py:205, in HTTPConnection._new_conn(self)
        204 except socket.gaierror as e:
    --> 205     raise NameResolutionError(self.host, self, e) from e
        206 except SocketTimeout as e:

    NameResolutionError: <urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7dc184884050>: Failed to resolve 'github.com' ([Errno -2] Name or service not known)

    The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

    MaxRetryError                             Traceback (most recent call last)
    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/requests/adapters.py:667, in HTTPAdapter.send(self, request, stream, timeout, verify, cert, proxies)
        666 try:
    --> 667     resp = conn.urlopen(
        668         method=request.method,
        669         url=url,
        670         body=request.body,
        671         headers=request.headers,
        672         redirect=False,
        673         assert_same_host=False,
        674         preload_content=False,
        675         decode_content=False,
        676         retries=self.max_retries,
        677         timeout=timeout,
        678         chunked=chunked,
        679     )
        681 except (ProtocolError, OSError) as err:

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/urllib3/connectionpool.py:841, in HTTPConnectionPool.urlopen(self, method, url, body, headers, retries, redirect, assert_same_host, timeout, pool_timeout, release_conn, chunked, body_pos, preload_content, decode_content, **response_kw)
        839     new_e = ProtocolError("Connection aborted.", new_e)
    --> 841 retries = retries.increment(
        842     method, url, error=new_e, _pool=self, _stacktrace=sys.exc_info()[2]
        843 )
        844 retries.sleep()

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/urllib3/util/retry.py:519, in Retry.increment(self, method, url, response, error, _pool, _stacktrace)
        518     reason = error or ResponseError(cause)
    --> 519     raise MaxRetryError(_pool, url, reason) from reason  # type: ignore[arg-type]
        521 log.debug("Incremented Retry for (url='%s'): %r", url, new_retry)

    MaxRetryError: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='github.com', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /pydata/xarray-data/raw/master/air_temperature.nc (Caused by NameResolutionError("<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7dc184884050>: Failed to resolve 'github.com' ([Errno -2] Name or service not known)"))

    During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

    ConnectionError                           Traceback (most recent call last)
    Cell In[2], line 1
    ----> 1 ds = xr.tutorial.load_dataset("air_temperature")

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/xarray/tutorial.py:215, in load_dataset(*args, **kwargs)
        178 def load_dataset(*args, **kwargs) -> Dataset:
        179     """
        180     Open, load into memory, and close a dataset from the online repository
        181     (requires internet).
       (...)
        213     load_dataset
        214     """
    --> 215     with open_dataset(*args, **kwargs) as ds:
        216         return ds.load()

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/xarray/tutorial.py:167, in open_dataset(name, cache, cache_dir, engine, **kws)
        164 downloader = pooch.HTTPDownloader(headers=headers)
        166 # retrieve the file
    --> 167 filepath = pooch.retrieve(
        168     url=url, known_hash=None, path=cache_dir, downloader=downloader
        169 )
        170 ds = _open_dataset(filepath, engine=engine, **kws)
        171 if not cache:

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/pooch/core.py:239, in retrieve(url, known_hash, fname, path, processor, downloader, progressbar)
        236 if downloader is None:
        237     downloader = choose_downloader(url, progressbar=progressbar)
    --> 239 stream_download(url, full_path, known_hash, downloader, pooch=None)
        241 if known_hash is None:
        242     get_logger().info(
        243         "SHA256 hash of downloaded file: %s\n"
        244         "Use this value as the 'known_hash' argument of 'pooch.retrieve'"
       (...)
        247         file_hash(str(full_path)),
        248     )

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/pooch/core.py:807, in stream_download(url, fname, known_hash, downloader, pooch, retry_if_failed)
        803 try:
        804     # Stream the file to a temporary so that we can safely check its
        805     # hash before overwriting the original.
        806     with temporary_file(path=str(fname.parent)) as tmp:
    --> 807         downloader(url, tmp, pooch)
        808         hash_matches(tmp, known_hash, strict=True, source=str(fname.name))
        809         shutil.move(tmp, str(fname))

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/pooch/downloaders.py:220, in HTTPDownloader.__call__(self, url, output_file, pooch, check_only)
        218     # pylint: enable=consider-using-with
        219 try:
    --> 220     response = requests.get(url, timeout=timeout, **kwargs)
        221     response.raise_for_status()
        222     content = response.iter_content(chunk_size=self.chunk_size)

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/requests/api.py:73, in get(url, params, **kwargs)
         62 def get(url, params=None, **kwargs):
         63     r"""Sends a GET request.
         64
         65     :param url: URL for the new :class:`Request` object.
       (...)
         70     :rtype: requests.Response
         71     """
    ---> 73     return request("get", url, params=params, **kwargs)

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/requests/api.py:59, in request(method, url, **kwargs)
         55 # By using the 'with' statement we are sure the session is closed, thus we
         56 # avoid leaving sockets open which can trigger a ResourceWarning in some
         57 # cases, and look like a memory leak in others.
         58 with sessions.Session() as session:
    ---> 59     return session.request(method=method, url=url, **kwargs)

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/requests/sessions.py:589, in Session.request(self, method, url, params, data, headers, cookies, files, auth, timeout, allow_redirects, proxies, hooks, stream, verify, cert, json)
        584 send_kwargs = {
        585     "timeout": timeout,
        586     "allow_redirects": allow_redirects,
        587 }
        588 send_kwargs.update(settings)
    --> 589 resp = self.send(prep, **send_kwargs)
        591 return resp

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/requests/sessions.py:703, in Session.send(self, request, **kwargs)
        700 start = preferred_clock()
        702 # Send the request
    --> 703 r = adapter.send(request, **kwargs)
        705 # Total elapsed time of the request (approximately)
        706 elapsed = preferred_clock() - start

    File /usr/lib/python3/dist-packages/requests/adapters.py:700, in HTTPAdapter.send(self, request, stream, timeout, verify, cert, proxies)
        696     if isinstance(e.reason, _SSLError):
        697         # This branch is for urllib3 v1.22 and later.
        698         raise SSLError(e, request=request)
    --> 700     raise ConnectionError(e, request=request)
        702 except ClosedPoolError as e:
        703     raise ConnectionError(e, request=request)

    ConnectionError: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='github.com', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /pydata/xarray-data/raw/master/air_temperature.nc (Caused by NameResolutionError("<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7dc184884050>: Failed to resolve 'github.com' ([Errno -2] Name or service not known)"))

## Multiple plots and map projections

Control the map projection parameters on multiple axes

This example illustrates how to plot multiple maps and control their extent and aspect ratio.

For more details see this discussion on github.

    [3]:

    air = ds.air.isel(time=[0, 724]) - 273.15

    # This is the map projection we want to plot *onto*
    map_proj = ccrs.LambertConformal(central_longitude=-95, central_latitude=45)

    p = air.plot(
        transform=ccrs.PlateCarree(),  # the data's projection
        col="time",
        col_wrap=1,  # multiplot settings
        aspect=ds.dims["lon"] / ds.dims["lat"],  # for a sensible figsize
        subplot_kws={"projection": map_proj},
    )  # the plot's projection

    # We have to set the map's options on all axes
    for ax in p.axes.flat:
        ax.coastlines()
        ax.set_extent([-160, -30, 5, 75])

    ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    NameError                                 Traceback (most recent call last)
    Cell In[3], line 1
    ----> 1 air = ds.air.isel(time=[0, 724]) - 273.15
          3 # This is the map projection we want to plot *onto*
          4 map_proj = ccrs.LambertConformal(central_longitude=-95, central_latitude=45)

    NameError: name 'ds' is not defined

## Centered colormaps

Xarray’s automatic colormaps choice

    [4]:

    air = ds.air.isel(time=0)

    f, ((ax1, ax2), (ax3, ax4)) = plt.subplots(2, 2, figsize=(8, 6))

    # The first plot (in kelvins) chooses "viridis" and uses the data's min/max
    air.plot(ax=ax1, cbar_kwargs={"label": "K"})
    ax1.set_title("Kelvins: default")
    ax2.set_xlabel("")

    # The second plot (in celsius) now chooses "BuRd" and centers min/max around 0
    airc = air - 273.15
    airc.plot(ax=ax2, cbar_kwargs={"label": "°C"})
    ax2.set_title("Celsius: default")
    ax2.set_xlabel("")
    ax2.set_ylabel("")

    # The center doesn't have to be 0
    air.plot(ax=ax3, center=273.15, cbar_kwargs={"label": "K"})
    ax3.set_title("Kelvins: center=273.15")

    # Or it can be ignored
    airc.plot(ax=ax4, center=False, cbar_kwargs={"label": "°C"})
    ax4.set_title("Celsius: center=False")
    ax4.set_ylabel("")

    # Make it nice
    plt.tight_layout()

    ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    NameError                                 Traceback (most recent call last)
    Cell In[4], line 1
    ----> 1 air = ds.air.isel(time=0)
          3 f, ((ax1, ax2), (ax3, ax4)) = plt.subplots(2, 2, figsize=(8, 6))
          5 # The first plot (in kelvins) chooses "viridis" and uses the data's min/max

    NameError: name 'ds' is not defined

## Control the plot’s colorbar

Use `cbar_kwargs` keyword to specify the number of ticks. The `spacing` kwarg can be used to draw proportional ticks.

    [5]:

    air2d = ds.air.isel(time=500)

    # Prepare the figure
    f, (ax1, ax2, ax3) = plt.subplots(1, 3, figsize=(14, 4))

    # Irregular levels to illustrate the use of a proportional colorbar
    levels = [245, 250, 255, 260, 265, 270, 275, 280, 285, 290, 310, 340]

    # Plot data
    air2d.plot(ax=ax1, levels=levels)
    air2d.plot(ax=ax2, levels=levels, cbar_kwargs={"ticks": levels})
    air2d.plot(
        ax=ax3, levels=levels, cbar_kwargs={"ticks": levels, "spacing": "proportional"}
    )

    # Show plots
    plt.tight_layout()

    ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    NameError                                 Traceback (most recent call last)
    Cell In[5], line 1
    ----> 1 air2d = ds.air.isel(time=500)
          3 # Prepare the figure
          4 f, (ax1, ax2, ax3) = plt.subplots(1, 3, figsize=(14, 4))

    NameError: name 'ds' is not defined

## Multiple lines from a 2d DataArray

Use `xarray.plot.line` on a 2d DataArray to plot selections as multiple lines.

See `plotting.multiplelines` for more details.

    [6]:

    air = ds.air - 273.15  # to celsius

    # Prepare the figure
    f, (ax1, ax2) = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(8, 4), sharey=True)

    # Selected latitude indices
    isel_lats = [10, 15, 20]

    # Temperature vs longitude plot - illustrates the "hue" kwarg
    air.isel(time=0, lat=isel_lats).plot.line(ax=ax1, hue="lat")
    ax1.set_ylabel("°C")

    # Temperature vs time plot - illustrates the "x" and "add_legend" kwargs
    air.isel(lon=30, lat=isel_lats).plot.line(ax=ax2, x="time", add_legend=False)
    ax2.set_ylabel("")

    # Show
    plt.tight_layout()

    ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
    NameError                                 Traceback (most recent call last)
    Cell In[6], line 1
    ----> 1 air = ds.air - 273.15  # to celsius
          3 # Prepare the figure
          4 f, (ax1, ax2) = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(8, 4), sharey=True)

    NameError: name 'ds' is not defined