# Automatic conversion to Py2/3

The `future` source tree includes scripts called `futurize` and `pasteurize` to aid in making Python 2 code or Python 3 code compatible with both platforms (Py2/3) using the `future` module. These are based on `lib2to3` and use fixers from `2to3`, `3to2`, and `python-modernize`.

`futurize` passes Python 2 code through all the appropriate fixers to turn it into valid Python 3 code, and then adds `__future__` and `future` package imports.

For conversions from Python 3 code to Py2/3, use the `pasteurize` script instead. This converts Py3-only constructs (e.g. new metaclass syntax) and adds `__future__` and `future` imports to the top of each module.

In both cases, the result should be relatively clean Py3-style code that runs mostly unchanged on both Python 2 and Python 3.

## `futurize`: Py2 to Py2/3

The `futurize` script passes Python 2 code through all the appropriate fixers to turn it into valid Python 3 code, and then adds `__future__` and `future` package imports to re-enable compatibility with Python 2.

For example, running `futurize` turns this Python 2 code:

    import ConfigParser                 # Py2 module name

    class Upper(object):
        def __init__(self, iterable):
            self._iter = iter(iterable)
        def next(self):                 # Py2-style iterator interface
            return next(self._iter).upper()
        def __iter__(self):
            return self

    itr = Upper('hello')
    print next(itr),
    for letter in itr:
        print letter,                   # Py2-style print statement

into this code which runs on both Py2 and Py3:

    from __future__ import print_function
    from future import standard_library
    standard_library.install_aliases()
    from future.builtins import next
    from future.builtins import object
    import configparser                 # Py3-style import

    class Upper(object):
        def __init__(self, iterable):
            self._iter = iter(iterable)
        def __next__(self):             # Py3-style iterator interface
            return next(self._iter).upper()
        def __iter__(self):
            return self

    itr = Upper('hello')
    print(next(itr), end=' ')           # Py3-style print function
    for letter in itr:
        print(letter, end=' ')

To write out all the changes to your Python files that `futurize` suggests, use the `-w` flag.

For complex projects, it is probably best to divide the porting into two stages. Stage 1 is for “safe” changes that modernize the code but do not break Python 2.7 compatibility or introduce a dependency on the `future` package. Stage 2 is to complete the process.

### Stage 1: “safe” fixes

Run the first stage of the conversion process with:

    futurize --stage1 mypackage/*.py

or, if you are using zsh, recursively:

    futurize --stage1 mypackage/**/*.py

This applies fixes that modernize Python 2 code without changing the effect of the code. With luck, this will not introduce any bugs into the code, or will at least be trivial to fix. The changes are those that bring the Python code up-to-date without breaking Py2 compatibility. The resulting code will be modern Python 2.7-compatible code plus `__future__` imports from the following set:

    from __future__ import absolute_import
    from __future__ import division
    from __future__ import print_function

Only those `__future__` imports deemed necessary will be added unless the `--all-imports` command-line option is passed to `futurize`, in which case they are all added.

The `from __future__ import unicode_literals` declaration is not added unless the `--unicode-literals` flag is passed to `futurize`.

The changes include:

    - except MyException, e:
    + except MyException as e:

    - print >>stderr, "Blah"
    + from __future__ import print_function
    + print("Blah", stderr)

    - class MyClass:
    + class MyClass(object):

    - def next(self):
    + def __next__(self):

    - if d.has_key(key):
    + if key in d:

Implicit relative imports fixed, e.g.:

    - import mymodule
    + from __future__ import absolute_import
    + from . import mymodule

Stage 1 does not add any imports from the `future` package. The output of stage 1 will probably not (yet) run on Python 3.

The goal for this stage is to create most of the `diff` for the entire porting process, but without introducing any bugs. It should be uncontroversial and safe to apply to every Python 2 package. The subsequent patches introducing Python 3 compatibility should then be shorter and easier to review.

The complete set of fixers applied by `futurize --stage1` is:

    lib2to3.fixes.fix_apply
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_except
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_exec
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_exitfunc
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_funcattrs
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_has_key
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_idioms
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_intern
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_isinstance
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_methodattrs
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_ne
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_numliterals
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_paren
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_reduce
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_renames
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_repr
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_standarderror
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_sys_exc
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_throw
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_tuple_params
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_types
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_ws_comma
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_xreadlines
    libfuturize.fixes.fix_absolute_import
    libfuturize.fixes.fix_next_call
    libfuturize.fixes.fix_print_with_import
    libfuturize.fixes.fix_raise

The following fixers from `lib2to3` are not applied:

    lib2to3.fixes.fix_import

The `fix_absolute_import` fixer in `libfuturize.fixes` is applied instead of `lib2to3.fixes.fix_import`. The new fixer both makes implicit relative imports explicit and adds the declaration `from __future__ import absolute_import` at the top of each relevant module.

    lib2to3.fixes.fix_next

The `fix_next_call` fixer in `libfuturize.fixes` is applied instead of `fix_next` in stage 1. The new fixer changes any `obj.next()` calls to `next(obj)`, which is Py2/3 compatible, but doesn’t change any `next` method names to `__next__`, which would break Py2 compatibility.

`fix_next` is applied in stage 2.

    lib2to3.fixes.fix_print

The `fix_print_with_import` fixer in `libfuturize.fixes` changes the code to use print as a function and also adds `from __future__ import print_function` to the top of modules using `print()`.

In addition, it avoids adding an extra set of parentheses if these already exist. So `print(x)` does not become `print((x))`.

    lib2to3.fixes.fix_raise

This fixer translates code to use the Python 3-only `with_traceback()` method on exceptions.

    lib2to3.fixes.fix_set_literal

This converts `set([1, 2, 3]`) to `{1, 2, 3}`.

    lib2to3.fixes.fix_ws_comma

This performs cosmetic changes. This is not applied by default because it does not serve to improve Python 2/3 compatibility. (In some cases it may also reduce readability: see issue #58.)

### Stage 2: Py3-style code with wrappers for Py2

Run stage 2 of the conversion process with:

    futurize --stage2 myfolder/*.py

This stage adds a dependency on the `future` package. The goal for stage 2 is to make further mostly safe changes to the Python 2 code to use Python 3-style code that then still runs on Python 2 with the help of the appropriate builtins and utilities in `future`.

For example:

    name = raw_input('What is your name?\n')

    for k, v in d.iteritems():
        assert isinstance(v, basestring)

    class MyClass(object):
        def __unicode__(self):
            return u'My object'
        def __str__(self):
            return unicode(self).encode('utf-8')

would be converted by Stage 2 to this code:

    from builtins import input
    from builtins import str
    from future.utils import iteritems, python_2_unicode_compatible

    name = input('What is your name?\n')

    for k, v in iteritems(d):
        assert isinstance(v, (str, bytes))

    @python_2_unicode_compatible
    class MyClass(object):
        def __str__(self):
            return u'My object'

Stage 2 also renames standard-library imports to their Py3 names and adds these two lines:

    from future import standard_library
    standard_library.install_aliases()

For example:

    import ConfigParser

becomes:

    from future import standard_library
    standard_library.install_aliases()
    import configparser

The complete list of fixers applied in Stage 2 is:

    lib2to3.fixes.fix_dict
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_filter
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_getcwdu
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_input
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_itertools
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_itertools_imports
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_long
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_map
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_next
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_nonzero
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_operator
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_raw_input
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_zip

    libfuturize.fixes.fix_basestring
    libfuturize.fixes.fix_cmp
    libfuturize.fixes.fix_division_safe
    libfuturize.fixes.fix_execfile
    libfuturize.fixes.fix_future_builtins
    libfuturize.fixes.fix_future_standard_library
    libfuturize.fixes.fix_future_standard_library_urllib
    libfuturize.fixes.fix_metaclass
    libpasteurize.fixes.fix_newstyle
    libfuturize.fixes.fix_object
    libfuturize.fixes.fix_unicode_keep_u
    libfuturize.fixes.fix_xrange_with_import

Not applied:

    lib2to3.fixes.fix_buffer    # Perhaps not safe. Test this.
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_callable  # Not needed in Py3.2+
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_execfile  # Some problems: see issue #37.
                                # We use the custom libfuturize.fixes.fix_execfile instead.
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_future    # Removing __future__ imports is bad for Py2 compatibility!
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_imports   # Called by libfuturize.fixes.fix_future_standard_library
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_imports2  # We don't handle this yet (dbm)
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_metaclass # Causes SyntaxError in Py2! Use the one from ``six`` instead
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_unicode   # Strips off the u'' prefix, which removes a potentially
                                # helpful source of information for disambiguating
                                # unicode/byte strings.
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_urllib    # Included in libfuturize.fix_future_standard_library_urllib
    lib2to3.fixes.fix_xrange    # Custom one because of a bug with Py3.3's lib2to3

### Separating text from bytes

After applying stage 2, the recommended step is to decide which of your Python 2 strings represent text and which represent binary data and to prefix all string literals with either `b` or `u` accordingly. Furthermore, to ensure that these types behave similarly on Python 2 as on Python 3, also wrap byte-strings or text in the `bytes` and `str` types from `future`. For example:

    from builtins import bytes, str
    b = bytes(b'\x00ABCD')
    s = str(u'This is normal text')

Any unadorned string literals will then represent native platform strings (byte-strings on Py2, unicode strings on Py3).

An alternative is to pass the `--unicode-literals` flag:

    $ futurize --unicode-literals mypython2script.py

After running this, all string literals that were not explicitly marked up as `b''` will mean text (Python 3 `str` or Python 2 `unicode`).

### Post-conversion

After running `futurize`, we recommend first running your tests on Python 3 and making further code changes until they pass on Python 3.

The next step would be manually tweaking the code to re-enable Python 2 compatibility with the help of the `future` package. For example, you can add the `@python_2_unicode_compatible` decorator to any classes that define custom `__str__` methods. See What else you need to know for more info.

## `futurize` quick-start guide

How to convert Py2 code to Py2/3 code using `futurize`:

### Step 0: setup

Step 0 goal: set up and see the tests passing on Python 2 and failing on Python 3.

1. Clone the package from github/bitbucket. Optionally rename your repo to `package-future`. Examples: `reportlab-future`, `paramiko-future`, `mezzanine-future`.

2. Create and activate a Python 2 conda environment or virtualenv. Install the package with `python setup.py install` and run its test suite on Py2.7 (e.g. `python setup.py test` or `py.test`)

3. Optionally: if there is a `.travis.yml` file, add Python version 3.6 and remove any versions < 2.6.

4. Install Python 3 with e.g. `sudo apt-get install python3`. On other platforms, an easy way is to use Miniconda. Then e.g.:

       conda create -n py36 python=3.6 pip

### Step 1: modern Py2 code

The goal for this step is to modernize the Python 2 code without introducing any dependencies (on `future` or e.g. `six`) at this stage.

1a. Install `future` into the virtualenv using:

    pip install future

1b. Run `futurize --stage1 -w *.py subdir1/*.py subdir2/*.py`. Note that with recursive globbing in `bash` or `zsh`, you can apply stage 1 to all source files recursively with:

    futurize --stage1 -w .

1c. Commit all changes

1d. Re-run the test suite on Py2 and fix any errors.

See Stage 1: “safe” fixes for more info.

#### Example error

One relatively common error after conversion is:

    Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
      File "/home/user/Install/BleedingEdge/reportlab/tests/test_encrypt.py", line 19, in <module>
        from .test_pdfencryption import parsedoc
    ValueError: Attempted relative import in non-package

If you get this error, try adding an empty `__init__.py` file in the package directory. (In this example, in the tests/ directory.) If this doesn’t help, and if this message appears for all tests, they must be invoked differently (from the cmd line or e.g. `setup.py`). The way to run a module inside a package on Python 3, or on Python 2 with `absolute_import` in effect, is:

    python -m tests.test_platypus_xref

(For more info, see PEP 328 and the PEP 8 section on absolute imports.)

### Step 2: working Py3 code that still supports Py2

The goal for this step is to get the tests passing first on Py3 and then on Py2 again with the help of the `future` package.

2a. Run:

    futurize --stage2 myfolder1/*.py myfolder2/*.py

You can view the stage 2 changes to all Python source files recursively with:

    futurize --stage2 .

To apply the changes, add the `-w` argument.

This stage makes further conversions needed to support both Python 2 and 3. These will likely require imports from `future` on Py2 (and sometimes on Py3), such as:

    from future import standard_library
    standard_library.install_aliases()
    # ...
    from builtins import bytes
    from builtins import open
    from future.utils import with_metaclass

Optionally, you can use the `--unicode-literals` flag to add this import to the top of each module:

    from __future__ import unicode_literals

All strings in the module would then be unicode on Py2 (as on Py3) unless explicitly marked with a `b''` prefix.

If you would like `futurize` to import all the changed builtins to have their Python 3 semantics on Python 2, invoke it like this:

    futurize --stage2 --all-imports myfolder/*.py

2b. Re-run your tests on Py3 now. Make changes until your tests pass on Python 3.

2c. Commit your changes! :)

2d. Now run your tests on Python 2 and notice the errors. Add wrappers from `future` to re-enable Python 2 compatibility. See the Cheat Sheet: Writing Python 2-3 compatible code cheat sheet and What else you need to know for more info.

After each change, re-run the tests on Py3 and Py2 to ensure they pass on both.

2e. You’re done! Celebrate! Push your code and announce to the world! Hashtags #python3 #python-future.

## `pasteurize`: Py3 to Py2/3

Running `pasteurize -w mypy3module.py` turns this Python 3 code:

    import configparser
    import copyreg

    class Blah:
        pass
    print('Hello', end=None)

into this code which runs on both Py2 and Py3:

    from __future__ import print_function
    from future import standard_library
    standard_library.install_hooks()

    import configparser
    import copyreg

    class Blah(object):
        pass
    print('Hello', end=None)

Notice that both `futurize` and `pasteurize` create explicit new-style classes that inherit from `object` on both Python versions, and both refer to stdlib modules (as well as builtins) under their Py3 names.

Note also that the `configparser` module is a special case; there is a full backport available on PyPI (https://pypi.org/project/configparser/), so, as of v0.16.0, `python-future` no longer provides a `configparser` package alias. To use the resulting code on Py2, install the `configparser` backport with `pip install configparser` or by adding it to your `requirements.txt` file.

`pasteurize` also handles the following Python 3 features:

- keyword-only arguments

- metaclasses (using `with_metaclass()`)

- extended tuple unpacking (PEP 3132)

To handle function annotations (PEP 3107), see Function annotations.

## Known limitations

`futurize` and `pasteurize` are useful to automate much of the work of porting, particularly the boring repetitive text substitutions. They also help to flag which parts of the code require attention.

Nevertheless, `futurize` and `pasteurize` are still incomplete and make some mistakes, like 2to3, on which they are based. Please report bugs on GitHub. Contributions to the `lib2to3`-based fixers for `futurize` and `pasteurize` are particularly welcome! Please see Contributing.

`futurize` doesn’t currently make the following change automatically:

1. Strings containing `\U` produce a `SyntaxError` on Python 3. An example is:

       s = 'C:\Users'.

   Python 2 expands this to `s = 'C:\\Users'`, but Python 3 requires a raw prefix (`r'...'`). This also applies to multi-line strings (including multi-line docstrings).

Also see the tests in `future/tests/test_futurize.py` marked `@expectedFailure` or `@skip` for known limitations.