### 1.2 Distribution models and middleware standards

Middleware provides a framework that hides the complex issues of distribution, and offers the programmer high-level abstractions that allow easy and transparent construction of distributed applications. A number of different standards exist for creating object-oriented distributed applications. These standards define two subsystems that enable interaction between application partitions:

- the API seen by the developer’s applicative objects;
- the protocol used by the middleware environment to interact with other nodes in the distributed application.

Middleware implementations also offer programming guidelines and development tools to ease the construction of large heterogeneous distributed systems. Many issues typical to distributed programming may still arise: application architectural choice, configuration or deployment. Since there is no “one size fits all” architecture, choosing the adequate distribution middleware in its most appropriate configuration is a key design point that dramatically impacts the design and performance of an application.

Consequently, applications need to rapidly tailor middleware to the specific distribution model they require. A distribution model is defined by the combination of distribution mechanisms made available to the application. Common examples of such mechanisms are Remote Procedure Call (RPC), Distributed Objects or Message Passing. A distribution infrastructure or middleware refers to software that supports one distribution model (or several), e.g.: OMG CORBA, Java Remote Method Invocation (RMI), the Distributed Systems Annex of Ada, Java Message Service (MOM).