1. Introduction

  This introduction will give you some background about Pike and this reference manual. It will also compare Pike with some other well known programming languages. If you want to start learning Pike immediately you can skip this chapter.

  This reference manual is written for people who already knows how to program and handle UNIX systems. Thus everything in this manual is grouped together and ordered where we conceptually thought they belonged, rather than how useful this information is to a beginner. If you have not programmed before, or feels that this reference manual is beyond you, take a look at other available Pike resources such as the "Pike Tutorial".

1.1. Overview

  FIXME: Make an chapter overview. Some sort of autogeneration?

1.2. The history of Pike

  In the beginning, there was Zork. Then a bunch of people decided to make multi-player adventure games. One of those people was Lars Pensjö at the Chalmers university in Gothenburg, Sweden. For his game he needed a simple, memory-efficient language, and thus LPC (Lars Pensjö C) was born. About a year later Fredrik Hübinette (Hubbe) started playing one of these games and found that the language was the most easy-to-use language he had ever encountered. He liked the language so much that he started improving it and before long he had made my own LPC dialect called LPC4. LPC4 was still geared towards writing adventure games, but was quite useful for writing other things as well. A major problem with LPC4 was the copyright, since it was based on Lars Pensjö's code. It had a license that did not allow it to be used for commercial gain, so in 1994 Hubbe started writing µLPC, a new but similar LPC interpreter.

  After a while Hubbe got financial backing for writing µLPC from Signum Support AB, a company dedicated to supporting GNU and GPL software. The goal with their funding was simply to create more GPL software.

  When µLPC became usable, InformationsVävarna AB started using it for their web-server. Before then, Roxen WebServer (then called Spinner) was non-commercial and written in LPC4. Then in 1996 Hubbe started working for InformationsVävarna developing µLPC for them. At this time the name was changed from µLPC to Pike to get a more commercially viable name. Pike was then developed full time by Hubbe and part time by other employees until Hubbe quit InformationsVävarna, which now had changed name to Roxen Internet Software.

1.3. A comparison with other languages

  Python
    Python is probably the language that is most like Pike. Pike is faster and has better object orientation. It also has a syntax similar to C and Java, which makes it more familiar for people who know these languages. Python on the other hand, has a lot more libraries available.
  C++
    Pike's syntax is almost the same as for C++. A huge difference is that Pike is interpreted. This makes the code slower, but reduces compile times to almost nothing. For those few applications which require the speed of C or C++, it is often easier to write a Pike extension than to write the whole thing in C or C++.
  Lisp and Scheme
    Internally Pike has a lot in common with simple interpreted Lisp and Scheme implementations. They are all stack based, byte-compiled, interpreted languages. Pike is also a 'one-cell' language, just like Scheme.
  Pascal
    Pike has nothing in common with Pascal.
  Tcl/Tk
    Pike is similar to Tcl/Tk in intent and they both have good string handling. Pike has better data types and is much faster however.

  FIXME: C, C#, Java, Perl

1.4. What is Pike

  Pike is:

  - A programming language
  - Object oriented
  - Interpreted
  - Fast
  - Dynamic
  - High-level
  - similar to C, C++, C# and Java
  - easy to extend
  - (a fish)

  Pike has:

  - Garbage collection
  - Advanced string functions
  - 8 years of development behind it
  - Advanced data types such as associative arrays
  - Support for bignums
  - Builtin socket support

1.5. Pike License

  Pike is released under the Gnu General Public License, GPL, the Gnu Lesser General Public License, LGPL, and Mozilla Public License, MPL.

1.5.1. Gnu General Public License

      		    GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
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1.5.2. Gnu Lesser General Public License

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                                  NO WARRANTY

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      WARRANTY FOR THE LIBRARY, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW.
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      DAMAGES.

                           END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS

1.5.3. Mozilla Public License

                                MOZILLA PUBLIC LICENSE
                                      Version 1.1

                                    ---------------

      1. Definitions.

           1.0.1. "Commercial Use" means distribution or otherwise making the
           Covered Code available to a third party.

           1.1. "Contributor" means each entity that creates or contributes to
           the creation of Modifications.

           1.2. "Contributor Version" means the combination of the Original
           Code, prior Modifications used by a Contributor, and the Modifications
           made by that particular Contributor.

           1.3. "Covered Code" means the Original Code or Modifications or the
           combination of the Original Code and Modifications, in each case
           including portions thereof.

           1.4. "Electronic Distribution Mechanism" means a mechanism generally
           accepted in the software development community for the electronic
           transfer of data.

           1.5. "Executable" means Covered Code in any form other than Source
           Code.

           1.6. "Initial Developer" means the individual or entity identified
           as the Initial Developer in the Source Code notice required by Exhibit
           A.

           1.7. "Larger Work" means a work which combines Covered Code or
           portions thereof with code not governed by the terms of this License.

           1.8. "License" means this document.

           1.8.1. "Licensable" means having the right to grant, to the maximum
           extent possible, whether at the time of the initial grant or
           subsequently acquired, any and all of the rights conveyed herein.

           1.9. "Modifications" means any addition to or deletion from the
           substance or structure of either the Original Code or any previous
           Modifications. When Covered Code is released as a series of files, a
           Modification is:
                A. Any addition to or deletion from the contents of a file
                containing Original Code or previous Modifications.

                B. Any new file that contains any part of the Original Code or
                previous Modifications.

           1.10. "Original Code" means Source Code of computer software code
           which is described in the Source Code notice required by Exhibit A as
           Original Code, and which, at the time of its release under this
           License is not already Covered Code governed by this License.

           1.10.1. "Patent Claims" means any patent claim(s), now owned or
           hereafter acquired, including without limitation,  method, process,
           and apparatus claims, in any patent Licensable by grantor.

           1.11. "Source Code" means the preferred form of the Covered Code for
           making modifications to it, including all modules it contains, plus
           any associated interface definition files, scripts used to control
           compilation and installation of an Executable, or source code
           differential comparisons against either the Original Code or another
           well known, available Covered Code of the Contributor's choice. The
           Source Code can be in a compressed or archival form, provided the
           appropriate decompression or de-archiving software is widely available
           for no charge.

           1.12. "You" (or "Your")  means an individual or a legal entity
           exercising rights under, and complying with all of the terms of, this
           License or a future version of this License issued under Section 6.1.
           For legal entities, "You" includes any entity which controls, is
           controlled by, or is under common control with You. For purposes of
           this definition, "control" means (a) the power, direct or indirect,
           to cause the direction or management of such entity, whether by
           contract or otherwise, or (b) ownership of more than fifty percent
           (50%) of the outstanding shares or beneficial ownership of such
           entity.

      2. Source Code License.

           2.1. The Initial Developer Grant.
           The Initial Developer hereby grants You a world-wide, royalty-free,
           non-exclusive license, subject to third party intellectual property
           claims:
                (a)  under intellectual property rights (other than patent or
                trademark) Licensable by Initial Developer to use, reproduce,
                modify, display, perform, sublicense and distribute the Original
                Code (or portions thereof) with or without Modifications, and/or
                as part of a Larger Work; and

                (b) under Patents Claims infringed by the making, using or
                selling of Original Code, to make, have made, use, practice,
                sell, and offer for sale, and/or otherwise dispose of the
                Original Code (or portions thereof).

                (c) the licenses granted in this Section 2.1(a) and (b) are
                effective on the date Initial Developer first distributes
                Original Code under the terms of this License.

                (d) Notwithstanding Section 2.1(b) above, no patent license is
                granted: 1) for code that You delete from the Original Code; 2)
                separate from the Original Code;  or 3) for infringements caused
                by: i) the modification of the Original Code or ii) the
                combination of the Original Code with other software or devices.

           2.2. Contributor Grant.
           Subject to third party intellectual property claims, each Contributor
           hereby grants You a world-wide, royalty-free, non-exclusive license

                (a)  under intellectual property rights (other than patent or
                trademark) Licensable by Contributor, to use, reproduce, modify,
                display, perform, sublicense and distribute the Modifications
                created by such Contributor (or portions thereof) either on an
                unmodified basis, with other Modifications, as Covered Code
                and/or as part of a Larger Work; and

                (b) under Patent Claims infringed by the making, using, or
                selling of  Modifications made by that Contributor either alone
                and/or in combination with its Contributor Version (or portions
                of such combination), to make, use, sell, offer for sale, have
                made, and/or otherwise dispose of: 1) Modifications made by that
                Contributor (or portions thereof); and 2) the combination of
                Modifications made by that Contributor with its Contributor
                Version (or portions of such combination).

                (c) the licenses granted in Sections 2.2(a) and 2.2(b) are
                effective on the date Contributor first makes Commercial Use of
                the Covered Code.

                (d)    Notwithstanding Section 2.2(b) above, no patent license is
                granted: 1) for any code that Contributor has deleted from the
                Contributor Version; 2)  separate from the Contributor Version;
                3)  for infringements caused by: i) third party modifications of
                Contributor Version or ii)  the combination of Modifications made
                by that Contributor with other software  (except as part of the
                Contributor Version) or other devices; or 4) under Patent Claims
                infringed by Covered Code in the absence of Modifications made by
                that Contributor.

      3. Distribution Obligations.

           3.1. Application of License.
           The Modifications which You create or to which You contribute are
           governed by the terms of this License, including without limitation
           Section 2.2. The Source Code version of Covered Code may be
           distributed only under the terms of this License or a future version
           of this License released under Section 6.1, and You must include a
           copy of this License with every copy of the Source Code You
           distribute. You may not offer or impose any terms on any Source Code
           version that alters or restricts the applicable version of this
           License or the recipients' rights hereunder. However, You may include
           an additional document offering the additional rights described in
           Section 3.5.

           3.2. Availability of Source Code.
           Any Modification which You create or to which You contribute must be
           made available in Source Code form under the terms of this License
           either on the same media as an Executable version or via an accepted
           Electronic Distribution Mechanism to anyone to whom you made an
           Executable version available; and if made available via Electronic
           Distribution Mechanism, must remain available for at least twelve (12)
           months after the date it initially became available, or at least six
           (6) months after a subsequent version of that particular Modification
           has been made available to such recipients. You are responsible for
           ensuring that the Source Code version remains available even if the
           Electronic Distribution Mechanism is maintained by a third party.

           3.3. Description of Modifications.
           You must cause all Covered Code to which You contribute to contain a
           file documenting the changes You made to create that Covered Code and
           the date of any change. You must include a prominent statement that
           the Modification is derived, directly or indirectly, from Original
           Code provided by the Initial Developer and including the name of the
           Initial Developer in (a) the Source Code, and (b) in any notice in an
           Executable version or related documentation in which You describe the
           origin or ownership of the Covered Code.

           3.4. Intellectual Property Matters
                (a) Third Party Claims.
                If Contributor has knowledge that a license under a third party's
                intellectual property rights is required to exercise the rights
                granted by such Contributor under Sections 2.1 or 2.2,
                Contributor must include a text file with the Source Code
                distribution titled "LEGAL" which describes the claim and the
                party making the claim in sufficient detail that a recipient will
                know whom to contact. If Contributor obtains such knowledge after
                the Modification is made available as described in Section 3.2,
                Contributor shall promptly modify the LEGAL file in all copies
                Contributor makes available thereafter and shall take other steps
                (such as notifying appropriate mailing lists or newsgroups)
                reasonably calculated to inform those who received the Covered
                Code that new knowledge has been obtained.

                (b) Contributor APIs.
                If Contributor's Modifications include an application programming
                interface and Contributor has knowledge of patent licenses which
                are reasonably necessary to implement that API, Contributor must
                also include this information in the LEGAL file.

                     (c)    Representations.
                Contributor represents that, except as disclosed pursuant to
                Section 3.4(a) above, Contributor believes that Contributor's
                Modifications are Contributor's original creation(s) and/or
                Contributor has sufficient rights to grant the rights conveyed by
                this License.

           3.5. Required Notices.
           You must duplicate the notice in Exhibit A in each file of the Source
           Code.  If it is not possible to put such notice in a particular Source
           Code file due to its structure, then You must include such notice in a
           location (such as a relevant directory) where a user would be likely
           to look for such a notice.  If You created one or more Modification(s)
           You may add your name as a Contributor to the notice described in
           Exhibit A.  You must also duplicate this License in any documentation
           for the Source Code where You describe recipients' rights or ownership
           rights relating to Covered Code.  You may choose to offer, and to
           charge a fee for, warranty, support, indemnity or liability
           obligations to one or more recipients of Covered Code. However, You
           may do so only on Your own behalf, and not on behalf of the Initial
           Developer or any Contributor. You must make it absolutely clear than
           any such warranty, support, indemnity or liability obligation is
           offered by You alone, and You hereby agree to indemnify the Initial
           Developer and every Contributor for any liability incurred by the
           Initial Developer or such Contributor as a result of warranty,
           support, indemnity or liability terms You offer.

           3.6. Distribution of Executable Versions.
           You may distribute Covered Code in Executable form only if the
           requirements of Section 3.1-3.5 have been met for that Covered Code,
           and if You include a notice stating that the Source Code version of
           the Covered Code is available under the terms of this License,
           including a description of how and where You have fulfilled the
           obligations of Section 3.2. The notice must be conspicuously included
           in any notice in an Executable version, related documentation or
           collateral in which You describe recipients' rights relating to the
           Covered Code. You may distribute the Executable version of Covered
           Code or ownership rights under a license of Your choice, which may
           contain terms different from this License, provided that You are in
           compliance with the terms of this License and that the license for the
           Executable version does not attempt to limit or alter the recipient's
           rights in the Source Code version from the rights set forth in this
           License. If You distribute the Executable version under a different
           license You must make it absolutely clear that any terms which differ
           from this License are offered by You alone, not by the Initial
           Developer or any Contributor. You hereby agree to indemnify the
           Initial Developer and every Contributor for any liability incurred by
           the Initial Developer or such Contributor as a result of any such
           terms You offer.

           3.7. Larger Works.
           You may create a Larger Work by combining Covered Code with other code
           not governed by the terms of this License and distribute the Larger
           Work as a single product. In such a case, You must make sure the
           requirements of this License are fulfilled for the Covered Code.

      4. Inability to Comply Due to Statute or Regulation.

           If it is impossible for You to comply with any of the terms of this
           License with respect to some or all of the Covered Code due to
           statute, judicial order, or regulation then You must: (a) comply with
           the terms of this License to the maximum extent possible; and (b)
           describe the limitations and the code they affect. Such description
           must be included in the LEGAL file described in Section 3.4 and must
           be included with all distributions of the Source Code. Except to the
           extent prohibited by statute or regulation, such description must be
           sufficiently detailed for a recipient of ordinary skill to be able to
           understand it.

      5. Application of this License.

           This License applies to code to which the Initial Developer has
           attached the notice in Exhibit A and to related Covered Code.

      6. Versions of the License.

           6.1. New Versions.
           Netscape Communications Corporation ("Netscape") may publish revised
           and/or new versions of the License from time to time. Each version
           will be given a distinguishing version number.

           6.2. Effect of New Versions.
           Once Covered Code has been published under a particular version of the
           License, You may always continue to use it under the terms of that
           version. You may also choose to use such Covered Code under the terms
           of any subsequent version of the License published by Netscape. No one
           other than Netscape has the right to modify the terms applicable to
           Covered Code created under this License.

           6.3. Derivative Works.
           If You create or use a modified version of this License (which you may
           only do in order to apply it to code which is not already Covered Code
           governed by this License), You must (a) rename Your license so that
           the phrases "Mozilla", "MOZILLAPL", "MOZPL", "Netscape",
           "MPL", "NPL" or any confusingly similar phrase do not appear in your
           license (except to note that your license differs from this License)
           and (b) otherwise make it clear that Your version of the license
           contains terms which differ from the Mozilla Public License and
           Netscape Public License. (Filling in the name of the Initial
           Developer, Original Code or Contributor in the notice described in
           Exhibit A shall not of themselves be deemed to be modifications of
           this License.)

      7. DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY.

           COVERED CODE IS PROVIDED UNDER THIS LICENSE ON AN "AS IS" BASIS,
           WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING,
           WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES THAT THE COVERED CODE IS FREE OF
           DEFECTS, MERCHANTABLE, FIT FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR NON-INFRINGING.
           THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE COVERED CODE
           IS WITH YOU. SHOULD ANY COVERED CODE PROVE DEFECTIVE IN ANY RESPECT,
           YOU (NOT THE INITIAL DEVELOPER OR ANY OTHER CONTRIBUTOR) ASSUME THE
           COST OF ANY NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION. THIS DISCLAIMER
           OF WARRANTY CONSTITUTES AN ESSENTIAL PART OF THIS LICENSE. NO USE OF
           ANY COVERED CODE IS AUTHORIZED HEREUNDER EXCEPT UNDER THIS DISCLAIMER.

      8. TERMINATION.

           8.1.  This License and the rights granted hereunder will terminate
           automatically if You fail to comply with terms herein and fail to cure
           such breach within 30 days of becoming aware of the breach. All
           sublicenses to the Covered Code which are properly granted shall
           survive any termination of this License. Provisions which, by their
           nature, must remain in effect beyond the termination of this License
           shall survive.

           8.2.  If You initiate litigation by asserting a patent infringement
           claim (excluding declatory judgment actions) against Initial Developer
           or a Contributor (the Initial Developer or Contributor against whom
           You file such action is referred to as "Participant")  alleging that:

           (a)  such Participant's Contributor Version directly or indirectly
           infringes any patent, then any and all rights granted by such
           Participant to You under Sections 2.1 and/or 2.2 of this License
           shall, upon 60 days notice from Participant terminate prospectively,
           unless if within 60 days after receipt of notice You either: (i)
           agree in writing to pay Participant a mutually agreeable reasonable
           royalty for Your past and future use of Modifications made by such
           Participant, or (ii) withdraw Your litigation claim with respect to
           the Contributor Version against such Participant.  If within 60 days
           of notice, a reasonable royalty and payment arrangement are not
           mutually agreed upon in writing by the parties or the litigation claim
           is not withdrawn, the rights granted by Participant to You under
           Sections 2.1 and/or 2.2 automatically terminate at the expiration of
           the 60 day notice period specified above.

           (b)  any software, hardware, or device, other than such Participant's
           Contributor Version, directly or indirectly infringes any patent, then
           any rights granted to You by such Participant under Sections 2.1(b)
           and 2.2(b) are revoked effective as of the date You first made, used,
           sold, distributed, or had made, Modifications made by that
           Participant.

           8.3.  If You assert a patent infringement claim against Participant
           alleging that such Participant's Contributor Version directly or
           indirectly infringes any patent where such claim is resolved (such as
           by license or settlement) prior to the initiation of patent
           infringement litigation, then the reasonable value of the licenses
           granted by such Participant under Sections 2.1 or 2.2 shall be taken
           into account in determining the amount or value of any payment or
           license.

           8.4.  In the event of termination under Sections 8.1 or 8.2 above,
           all end user license agreements (excluding distributors and resellers)
           which have been validly granted by You or any distributor hereunder
           prior to termination shall survive termination.

      9. LIMITATION OF LIABILITY.

           UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES AND UNDER NO LEGAL THEORY, WHETHER TORT
           (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE), CONTRACT, OR OTHERWISE, SHALL YOU, THE INITIAL
           DEVELOPER, ANY OTHER CONTRIBUTOR, OR ANY DISTRIBUTOR OF COVERED CODE,
           OR ANY SUPPLIER OF ANY OF SUCH PARTIES, BE LIABLE TO ANY PERSON FOR
           ANY INDIRECT, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OF ANY
           CHARACTER INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, DAMAGES FOR LOSS OF GOODWILL,
           WORK STOPPAGE, COMPUTER FAILURE OR MALFUNCTION, OR ANY AND ALL OTHER
           COMMERCIAL DAMAGES OR LOSSES, EVEN IF SUCH PARTY SHALL HAVE BEEN
           INFORMED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. THIS LIMITATION OF
           LIABILITY SHALL NOT APPLY TO LIABILITY FOR DEATH OR PERSONAL INJURY
           RESULTING FROM SUCH PARTY'S NEGLIGENCE TO THE EXTENT APPLICABLE LAW
           PROHIBITS SUCH LIMITATION. SOME JURISDICTIONS DO NOT ALLOW THE
           EXCLUSION OR LIMITATION OF INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, SO
           THIS EXCLUSION AND LIMITATION MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

      10. U.S. GOVERNMENT END USERS.

           The Covered Code is a "commercial item," as that term is defined in
           48 C.F.R. 2.101 (Oct. 1995), consisting of "commercial computer
           software" and "commercial computer software documentation," as such
           terms are used in 48 C.F.R. 12.212 (Sept. 1995). Consistent with 48
           C.F.R. 12.212 and 48 C.F.R. 227.7202-1 through 227.7202-4 (June 1995),
           all U.S. Government End Users acquire Covered Code with only those
           rights set forth herein.

      11. MISCELLANEOUS.

           This License represents the complete agreement concerning subject
           matter hereof. If any provision of this License is held to be
           unenforceable, such provision shall be reformed only to the extent
           necessary to make it enforceable. This License shall be governed by
           California law provisions (except to the extent applicable law, if
           any, provides otherwise), excluding its conflict-of-law provisions.
           With respect to disputes in which at least one party is a citizen of,
           or an entity chartered or registered to do business in the United
           States of America, any litigation relating to this License shall be
           subject to the jurisdiction of the Federal Courts of the Northern
           District of California, with venue lying in Santa Clara County,
           California, with the losing party responsible for costs, including
           without limitation, court costs and reasonable attorneys' fees and
           expenses. The application of the United Nations Convention on
           Contracts for the International Sale of Goods is expressly excluded.
           Any law or regulation which provides that the language of a contract
           shall be construed against the drafter shall not apply to this
           License.

      12. RESPONSIBILITY FOR CLAIMS.

           As between Initial Developer and the Contributors, each party is
           responsible for claims and damages arising, directly or indirectly,
           out of its utilization of rights under this License and You agree to
           work with Initial Developer and Contributors to distribute such
           responsibility on an equitable basis. Nothing herein is intended or
           shall be deemed to constitute any admission of liability.

      13. MULTIPLE-LICENSED CODE.

           Initial Developer may designate portions of the Covered Code as
           "Multiple-Licensed".  "Multiple-Licensed" means that the Initial
           Developer permits you to utilize portions of the Covered Code under
           Your choice of the NPL or the alternative licenses, if any, specified
           by the Initial Developer in the file described in Exhibit A.