# Getting Started

PETSc consists of a collection of classes, which are discussed in detail in later parts of the manual (Programming with PETSc/TAO and Additional Information). The important PETSc classes include

- index sets (`IS`), including permutations, for indexing into vectors, renumbering, etc;

- vectors (`Vec`);

- matrices (`Mat`) (generally sparse);

- over thirty Krylov subspace methods (`KSP`);

- dozens of preconditioners, including multigrid, block solvers, and sparse direct solvers (`PC`);

- nonlinear solvers (`SNES`);

- timesteppers for solving time-dependent (nonlinear) PDEs, including support for differential algebraic equations, and the computation of adjoints (sensitivities/gradients of the solutions) (`TS`);

- managing interactions between mesh data structures and vectors, matrices, and solvers (`DM`);

- scalable optimization algorithms (`Tao`).

Each class consist of an abstract interface (simply a set of calling sequences; an abstract base class in C++) and an implementation for each algorithm and data structure. Thus, PETSc provides clean and effective codes for the various phases of solving PDEs, with a uniform approach for each type of problem. This design enables easy comparison and use of different algorithms (for example, to experiment with different Krylov subspace methods, preconditioners, or truncated Newton methods). Hence, PETSc provides a rich environment for modeling scientific applications as well as for rapid algorithm design and prototyping.

The classes enable easy customization and extension of both algorithms and implementations. This approach promotes code reuse and flexibility, and also separates the issues of parallelism from the choice of algorithms. The PETSc infrastructure creates a foundation for building large-scale applications.

It is useful to consider the interrelationships among different pieces of PETSc. Numerical Libraries in PETSc is a diagram of some of these pieces. The figure illustrates the library’s hierarchical organization, which enables users to employ the solvers that are most appropriate for a particular problem.

Fig. 1 Numerical Libraries in PETSc

## Suggested Reading

The manual is divided into three parts:

- Introduction to PETSc

- Programming with PETSc/TAO

- Additional Information

Introduction to PETSc describes the basic procedure for using the PETSc library and presents two simple examples of solving linear systems with PETSc. This section conveys the typical style used throughout the library and enables the application programmer to begin using the software immediately.

Programming with PETSc/TAO explains in detail the use of the various PETSc libraries, such as vectors, matrices, index sets, linear and nonlinear solvers, and graphics. Additional Information describes a variety of useful information, including profiling, the options database, viewers, error handling, and some details of PETSc design.

PETSc has evolved to become quite a comprehensive package, and therefore this manual can be rather intimidating for new users. Bear in mind that PETSc can be used efficiently before one understands all of the material presented here. Furthermore, the definitive reference for any PETSc function is always the online manual page. Manual pages for all PETSc functions can be accessed here. The manual pages provide hyperlinked indices (organized by both concept and routine name) to the tutorial examples and enable easy movement among related topics.

Visual Studio Code , Eclipse, Emacs, and Vim users may find their development environment’s options for searching in the source code (for example, `etags` `ctags` for Emacs and Vim) are extremely useful for exploring the PETSc source code. Details of these feature are provided in Emacs Users.

The complete PETSc distribution, manual pages, and additional information are available via the PETSc home page. The PETSc home page also contains details regarding installation, new features and changes in recent versions of PETSc, machines that we currently support, and a frequently asked questions (FAQ) list.

Note to Fortran Programmers: In most of the manual, the examples and calling sequences are given for the C/C++ family of programming languages. However, Fortran programmers can use all of the functionality of PETSc from Fortran, with only minor differences in the user interface. PETSc for Fortran Users provides a discussion of the differences between using PETSc from Fortran and C, as well as several complete Fortran examples.

Note to Python Programmers: To program with PETSc in Python you need to enable Python bindings (i.e petsc4py) with the configure option `--with-petsc4py=1`. See the PETSc installation guide for more details.

## Running PETSc Programs

Before using PETSc, the user must first set the environmental variable `$PETSC_DIR`, indicating the full path of the PETSc home directory. For example, under the UNIX bash shell a command of the form

    > export PETSC_DIR=$HOME/petsc

can be placed in the user’s `.bashrc` or other startup file. In addition, the user may need to set the environment variable `$PETSC_ARCH` to specify a particular configuration of the PETSc libraries. Note that `$PETSC_ARCH` is just a name selected by the installer to refer to the libraries compiled for a particular set of compiler options and machine type. Using different values of `$PETSC_ARCH` allows one to switch between several different sets (say debug and optimized) of libraries easily. To determine if you need to set `$PETSC_ARCH`, look in the directory indicated by `$PETSC_DIR`, if there are subdirectories beginning with `arch` then those subdirectories give the possible values for `$PETSC_ARCH`.

All PETSc programs use the MPI (Message Passing Interface) standard for message-passing communication [For94]. Thus, to execute PETSc programs, users must know the procedure for beginning MPI jobs on their selected computer system(s). For instance, when using the MPICH implementation of MPI and many others, the following command initiates a program that uses eight processors:

    > mpiexec -n 8 ./petsc_program_name petsc_options

PETSc also comes with a script that automatically uses the correct `mpiexec` for your configuration.

    > $PETSC_DIR/lib/petsc/bin/petscmpiexec -n 8 ./petsc_program_name petsc_options

All PETSc-compliant programs support the use of the `-help` option as well as the `-version` option.

Certain options are supported by all PETSc programs. We list a few particularly useful ones below; a complete list can be obtained by running any PETSc program with the option `-help`.

- `-log_view` - summarize the program’s performance (see Profiling)

- `-fp_trap` - stop on floating-point exceptions; for example divide by zero

- `-malloc_dump` - enable memory tracing; dump list of unfreed memory at conclusion of the run, see Detecting Memory Allocation Problems,

- `-malloc_debug` - enable memory debugging (by default this is activated for the debugging version of PETSc), see Detecting Memory Allocation Problems,

- `-start_in_debugger` `[noxterm,gdb,lldb]` `[-display name]` - start all processes in debugger. See Debugging, for more information on debugging PETSc programs.

- `-on_error_attach_debugger` `[noxterm,gdb,lldb]` `[-display name]` - start debugger only on encountering an error

- `-info` - print a great deal of information about what the program is doing as it runs

## Writing PETSc Programs

Most PETSc programs begin with a call to

    ierr = PetscInitialize(int *argc,char ***argv,char *file,char *help);if (ierr) return ierr;

which initializes PETSc and MPI. The arguments `argc` and `argv` are the command line arguments delivered in all C and C++ programs. The argument `file` optionally indicates an alternative name for the PETSc options file, `.petscrc`, which resides by default in the user’s home directory. Runtime Options provides details regarding this file and the PETSc options database, which can be used for runtime customization. The final argument, `help`, is an optional character string that will be printed if the program is run with the `-help` option. In Fortran the initialization command has the form

    call PetscInitialize(character(*) file,integer ierr)

`PetscInitialize()` automatically calls `MPI_Init()` if MPI has not been not previously initialized. In certain circumstances in which MPI needs to be initialized directly (or is initialized by some other library), the user can first call `MPI_Init()` (or have the other library do it), and then call `PetscInitialize()`. By default, `PetscInitialize()` sets the PETSc “world” communicator `PETSC_COMM_WORLD` to `MPI_COMM_WORLD`.

For those not familiar with MPI, a communicator is a way of indicating a collection of processes that will be involved together in a calculation or communication. Communicators have the variable type `MPI_Comm`. In most cases users can employ the communicator `PETSC_COMM_WORLD` to indicate all processes in a given run and `PETSC_COMM_SELF` to indicate a single process.

MPI provides routines for generating new communicators consisting of subsets of processors, though most users rarely need to use these. The book Using MPI, by Lusk, Gropp, and Skjellum [GLS94] provides an excellent introduction to the concepts in MPI. See also the MPI homepage. Note that PETSc users need not program much message passing directly with MPI, but they must be familiar with the basic concepts of message passing and distributed memory computing.

All PETSc routines return a `PetscErrorCode`, which is an integer indicating whether an error has occurred during the call. The error code is set to be nonzero if an error has been detected; otherwise, it is zero. For the C/C++ interface, the error variable is the routine’s return value, while for the Fortran version, each PETSc routine has as its final argument an integer error variable.

All PETSc programs should call `PetscFinalize()` as their final (or nearly final) statement, as given below in the C/C++ and Fortran formats, respectively:

    ierr = PetscFinalize();
    return ierr;

    call PetscFinalize(ierr)

This routine handles options to be called at the conclusion of the program, and calls `MPI_Finalize()` if `PetscInitialize()` began MPI. If MPI was initiated externally from PETSc (by either the user or another software package), the user is responsible for calling `MPI_Finalize()`.

## Simple PETSc Examples

To help the user start using PETSc immediately, we begin with a simple uniprocessor example that solves the one-dimensional Laplacian problem with finite differences. This sequential code, which can be found in `$PETSC_DIR/src/ksp/ksp/tutorials/ex1.c`, illustrates the solution of a linear system with `KSP`, the interface to the preconditioners, Krylov subspace methods, and direct linear solvers of PETSc. Following the code we highlight a few of the most important parts of this example.

Listing: `src/ksp/ksp/tutorials/ex1.c`

    static char help[] = "Solves a tridiagonal linear system with KSP.\n\n";

    /*T
       Concepts: KSP^solving a system of linear equations
       Processors: 1
    T*/

    /*
      Include "petscksp.h" so that we can use KSP solvers.  Note that this file
      automatically includes:
         petscsys.h    - base PETSc routines   petscvec.h - vectors
         petscmat.h    - matrices              petscpc.h  - preconditioners
         petscis.h     - index sets
         petscviewer.h - viewers

      Note:  The corresponding parallel example is ex23.c
    */
    #include <petscksp.h>

    int main(int argc,char **args)
    {
      Vec            x, b, u;      /* approx solution, RHS, exact solution */
      Mat            A;            /* linear system matrix */
      KSP            ksp;          /* linear solver context */
      PC             pc;           /* preconditioner context */
      PetscReal      norm;         /* norm of solution error */
      PetscErrorCode ierr;
      PetscInt       i,n = 10,col[3],its;
      PetscMPIInt    size;
      PetscScalar    value[3];

      ierr = PetscInitialize(&argc,&args,(char*)0,help);if (ierr) return ierr;
      ierr = MPI_Comm_size(PETSC_COMM_WORLD,&size);CHKERRMPI(ierr);
      if (size != 1) SETERRQ(PETSC_COMM_WORLD,PETSC_ERR_WRONG_MPI_SIZE,"This is a uniprocessor example only!");
      ierr = PetscOptionsGetInt(NULL,NULL,"-n",&n,NULL);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
             Compute the matrix and right-hand-side vector that define
             the linear system, Ax = b.
         - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - */

      /*
         Create vectors.  Note that we form 1 vector from scratch and
         then duplicate as needed.
      */
      ierr = VecCreate(PETSC_COMM_WORLD,&x);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = PetscObjectSetName((PetscObject) x, "Solution");CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = VecSetSizes(x,PETSC_DECIDE,n);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = VecSetFromOptions(x);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = VecDuplicate(x,&b);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = VecDuplicate(x,&u);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Create matrix.  When using MatCreate(), the matrix format can
         be specified at runtime.

         Performance tuning note:  For problems of substantial size,
         preallocation of matrix memory is crucial for attaining good
         performance. See the matrix chapter of the users manual for details.
      */
      ierr = MatCreate(PETSC_COMM_WORLD,&A);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatSetSizes(A,PETSC_DECIDE,PETSC_DECIDE,n,n);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatSetFromOptions(A);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatSetUp(A);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Assemble matrix
      */
      value[0] = -1.0; value[1] = 2.0; value[2] = -1.0;
      for (i=1; i<n-1; i++) {
        col[0] = i-1; col[1] = i; col[2] = i+1;
        ierr   = MatSetValues(A,1,&i,3,col,value,INSERT_VALUES);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      }
      i    = n - 1; col[0] = n - 2; col[1] = n - 1;
      ierr = MatSetValues(A,1,&i,2,col,value,INSERT_VALUES);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      i    = 0; col[0] = 0; col[1] = 1; value[0] = 2.0; value[1] = -1.0;
      ierr = MatSetValues(A,1,&i,2,col,value,INSERT_VALUES);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatAssemblyBegin(A,MAT_FINAL_ASSEMBLY);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatAssemblyEnd(A,MAT_FINAL_ASSEMBLY);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Set exact solution; then compute right-hand-side vector.
      */
      ierr = VecSet(u,1.0);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatMult(A,u,b);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
                    Create the linear solver and set various options
         - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - */
      ierr = KSPCreate(PETSC_COMM_WORLD,&ksp);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Set operators. Here the matrix that defines the linear system
         also serves as the matrix that defines the preconditioner.
      */
      ierr = KSPSetOperators(ksp,A,A);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Set linear solver defaults for this problem (optional).
         - By extracting the KSP and PC contexts from the KSP context,
           we can then directly call any KSP and PC routines to set
           various options.
         - The following four statements are optional; all of these
           parameters could alternatively be specified at runtime via
           KSPSetFromOptions();
      */
      ierr = KSPGetPC(ksp,&pc);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = PCSetType(pc,PCJACOBI);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = KSPSetTolerances(ksp,1.e-5,PETSC_DEFAULT,PETSC_DEFAULT,PETSC_DEFAULT);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
        Set runtime options, e.g.,
            -ksp_type <type> -pc_type <type> -ksp_monitor -ksp_rtol <rtol>
        These options will override those specified above as long as
        KSPSetFromOptions() is called _after_ any other customization
        routines.
      */
      ierr = KSPSetFromOptions(ksp);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
                          Solve the linear system
         - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - */
      ierr = KSPSolve(ksp,b,x);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         View solver info; we could instead use the option -ksp_view to
         print this info to the screen at the conclusion of KSPSolve().
      */
      ierr = KSPView(ksp,PETSC_VIEWER_STDOUT_WORLD);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
                          Check the solution and clean up
         - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - */
      ierr = VecAXPY(x,-1.0,u);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = VecNorm(x,NORM_2,&norm);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = KSPGetIterationNumber(ksp,&its);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = PetscPrintf(PETSC_COMM_WORLD,"Norm of error %g, Iterations %D\n",(double)norm,its);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Free work space.  All PETSc objects should be destroyed when they
         are no longer needed.
      */
      ierr = VecDestroy(&x);CHKERRQ(ierr); ierr = VecDestroy(&u);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = VecDestroy(&b);CHKERRQ(ierr); ierr = MatDestroy(&A);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = KSPDestroy(&ksp);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Always call PetscFinalize() before exiting a program.  This routine
           - finalizes the PETSc libraries as well as MPI
           - provides summary and diagnostic information if certain runtime
             options are chosen (e.g., -log_view).
      */
      ierr = PetscFinalize();
      return ierr;
    }

### Include Files

The C/C++ include files for PETSc should be used via statements such as

    #include <petscksp.h>

where `petscksp.h` is the include file for the linear solver library. Each PETSc program must specify an include file that corresponds to the highest level PETSc objects needed within the program; all of the required lower level include files are automatically included within the higher level files. For example, `petscksp.h` includes `petscmat.h` (matrices), `petscvec.h` (vectors), and `petscsys.h` (base PETSc file). The PETSc include files are located in the directory `$PETSC_DIR/include`. See Fortran Include Files for a discussion of PETSc include files in Fortran programs.

### The Options Database

As shown in Simple PETSc Examples, the user can input control data at run time using the options database. In this example the command `PetscOptionsGetInt(NULL,NULL,"-n",&n,&flg);` checks whether the user has provided a command line option to set the value of `n`, the problem dimension. If so, the variable `n` is set accordingly; otherwise, `n` remains unchanged. A complete description of the options database may be found in Runtime Options.

### Vectors

One creates a new parallel or sequential vector, `x`, of global dimension `M` with the commands

    VecCreate(MPI_Comm comm,Vec *x);
    VecSetSizes(Vec x, PetscInt m, PetscInt M);

where `comm` denotes the MPI communicator and `m` is the optional local size which may be `PETSC_DECIDE`. The type of storage for the vector may be set with either calls to `VecSetType()` or `VecSetFromOptions()`. Additional vectors of the same type can be formed with

    VecDuplicate(Vec old,Vec *new);

The commands

    VecSet(Vec x,PetscScalar value);
    VecSetValues(Vec x,PetscInt n,PetscInt *indices,PetscScalar *values,INSERT_VALUES);

respectively set all the components of a vector to a particular scalar value and assign a different value to each component. More detailed information about PETSc vectors, including their basic operations, scattering/gathering, index sets, and distributed arrays, is discussed in Chapter Vectors and Parallel Data.

Note the use of the PETSc variable type `PetscScalar` in this example. The `PetscScalar` is simply defined to be `double` in C/C++ (or correspondingly `double precision` in Fortran) for versions of PETSc that have not been compiled for use with complex numbers. The `PetscScalar` data type enables identical code to be used when the PETSc libraries have been compiled for use with complex numbers. Numbers discusses the use of complex numbers in PETSc programs.

### Matrices

Usage of PETSc matrices and vectors is similar. The user can create a new parallel or sequential matrix, `A`, which has `M` global rows and `N` global columns, with the routines

    MatCreate(MPI_Comm comm,Mat *A);
    MatSetSizes(Mat A,PETSC_DECIDE,PETSC_DECIDE,PetscInt M,PetscInt N);

where the matrix format can be specified at runtime via the options database. The user could alternatively specify each processes’ number of local rows and columns using `m` and `n`.

    MatSetSizes(Mat A,PetscInt m,PetscInt n,PETSC_DETERMINE,PETSC_DETERMINE);

Generally one then sets the “type” of the matrix, with, for example,

    MatSetType(A,MATAIJ);

This causes the matrix `A` to used the compressed sparse row storage format to store the matrix entries. See `MatType` for a list of all matrix types. Values can then be set with the command

    MatSetValues(Mat A,PetscInt m,PetscInt *im,PetscInt n,PetscInt *in,PetscScalar *values,INSERT_VALUES);

After all elements have been inserted into the matrix, it must be processed with the pair of commands

    MatAssemblyBegin(A,MAT_FINAL_ASSEMBLY);
    MatAssemblyEnd(A,MAT_FINAL_ASSEMBLY);

Matrices discusses various matrix formats as well as the details of some basic matrix manipulation routines.

### Linear Solvers

After creating the matrix and vectors that define a linear system, `Ax` \(=\) `b`, the user can then use `KSP` to solve the system with the following sequence of commands:

    KSPCreate(MPI_Comm comm,KSP *ksp);
    KSPSetOperators(KSP ksp,Mat Amat,Mat Pmat);
    KSPSetFromOptions(KSP ksp);
    KSPSolve(KSP ksp,Vec b,Vec x);
    KSPDestroy(KSP ksp);

The user first creates the `KSP` context and sets the operators associated with the system (matrix that defines the linear system, `Amat` and matrix from which the preconditioner is constructed, `Pmat`). The user then sets various options for customized solution, solves the linear system, and finally destroys the `KSP` context. We emphasize the command `KSPSetFromOptions()`, which enables the user to customize the linear solution method at runtime by using the options database, which is discussed in Runtime Options. Through this database, the user not only can select an iterative method and preconditioner, but also can prescribe the convergence tolerance, set various monitoring routines, etc. (see, e.g., Profiling Programs).

KSP: Linear System Solvers describes in detail the `KSP` package, including the `PC` and `KSP` packages for preconditioners and Krylov subspace methods.

### Nonlinear Solvers

Most PDE problems of interest are inherently nonlinear. PETSc provides an interface to tackle the nonlinear problems directly called `SNES`. SNES: Nonlinear Solvers describes the nonlinear solvers in detail. We recommend most PETSc users work directly with `SNES`, rather than using PETSc for the linear problem within a nonlinear solver.

### Error Checking

All PETSc routines return an integer indicating whether an error has occurred during the call. The PETSc macro `CHKERRQ(ierr)` checks the value of `ierr` and calls the PETSc error handler upon error detection. `CHKERRQ(ierr)` should be used in all subroutines to enable a complete error traceback. Below, we indicate a traceback generated by error detection within a sample PETSc program. The error occurred on line 3618 of the file `$PETSC_DIR/src/mat/impls/aij/seq/aij.c` and was caused by trying to allocate too large an array in memory. The routine was called in the program `ex3.c` on line 66. See Error Checking for details regarding error checking when using the PETSc Fortran interface.

    $ cd $PETSC_DIR/src/ksp/ksp/tutorials
    $ make ex3
    $ mpiexec -n 1 ./ex3 -m 100000
    [0]PETSC ERROR: --------------------- Error Message --------------------------------
    [0]PETSC ERROR: Out of memory. This could be due to allocating
    [0]PETSC ERROR: too large an object or bleeding by not properly
    [0]PETSC ERROR: destroying unneeded objects.
    [0]PETSC ERROR: Memory allocated 11282182704 Memory used by process 7075897344
    [0]PETSC ERROR: Try running with -malloc_dump or -malloc_view for info.
    [0]PETSC ERROR: Memory requested 18446744072169447424
    [0]PETSC ERROR: See https://www.mcs.anl.gov/petsc/documentation/faq.html for trouble shooting.
    [0]PETSC ERROR: Petsc Development GIT revision: v3.7.1-224-g9c9a9c5  GIT Date: 2016-05-18 22:43:00 -0500
    [0]PETSC ERROR: ./ex3 on a arch-darwin-double-debug named Patricks-MacBook-Pro-2.local by patrick Mon Jun 27 18:04:03 2016
    [0]PETSC ERROR: Configure options PETSC_DIR=/Users/patrick/petsc PETSC_ARCH=arch-darwin-double-debug --download-mpich --download-f2cblaslapack --with-cc=clang --with-cxx=clang++ --with-fc=gfortran --with-debugging=1 --with-precision=double --with-scalar-type=real --with-viennacl=0 --download-c2html -download-sowing
    [0]PETSC ERROR: #1 MatSeqAIJSetPreallocation_SeqAIJ() line 3618 in /Users/patrick/petsc/src/mat/impls/aij/seq/aij.c
    [0]PETSC ERROR: #2 PetscTrMallocDefault() line 188 in /Users/patrick/petsc/src/sys/memory/mtr.c
    [0]PETSC ERROR: #3 MatSeqAIJSetPreallocation_SeqAIJ() line 3618 in /Users/patrick/petsc/src/mat/impls/aij/seq/aij.c
    [0]PETSC ERROR: #4 MatSeqAIJSetPreallocation() line 3562 in /Users/patrick/petsc/src/mat/impls/aij/seq/aij.c
    [0]PETSC ERROR: #5 main() line 66 in /Users/patrick/petsc/src/ksp/ksp/tutorials/ex3.c
    [0]PETSC ERROR: PETSc Option Table entries:
    [0]PETSC ERROR: -m 100000
    [0]PETSC ERROR: ----------------End of Error Message ------- send entire error message to petsc-maint@mcs.anl.gov----------

When running the debug version of the PETSc libraries, it does a great deal of checking for memory corruption (writing outside of array bounds etc). The macro `CHKMEMQ` can be called anywhere in the code to check the current status of the memory for corruption. By putting several (or many) of these macros into your code you can usually easily track down in what small segment of your code the corruption has occured. One can also use Valgrind to track down memory errors; see the FAQ.

### Parallel Programming

Since PETSc uses the message-passing model for parallel programming and employs MPI for all interprocessor communication, the user is free to employ MPI routines as needed throughout an application code. However, by default the user is shielded from many of the details of message passing within PETSc, since these are hidden within parallel objects, such as vectors, matrices, and solvers. In addition, PETSc provides tools such as generalized vector scatters/gathers to assist in the management of parallel data.

Recall that the user must specify a communicator upon creation of any PETSc object (such as a vector, matrix, or solver) to indicate the processors over which the object is to be distributed. For example, as mentioned above, some commands for matrix, vector, and linear solver creation are:

    MatCreate(MPI_Comm comm,Mat *A);
    VecCreate(MPI_Comm comm,Vec *x);
    KSPCreate(MPI_Comm comm,KSP *ksp);

The creation routines are collective over all processors in the communicator; thus, all processors in the communicator must call the creation routine. In addition, if a sequence of collective routines is being used, they must be called in the same order on each processor.

The next example, given below, illustrates the solution of a linear system in parallel. This code, corresponding to KSP Tutorial ex2 <../../src/ksp/ksp/tutorials/ex2.c.html>, handles the two-dimensional Laplacian discretized with finite differences, where the linear system is again solved with KSP. The code performs the same tasks as the sequential version within Simple PETSc Examples. Note that the user interface for initiating the program, creating vectors and matrices, and solving the linear system is exactly the same for the uniprocessor and multiprocessor examples. The primary difference between the examples in Simple PETSc Examples and here is that each processor forms only its local part of the matrix and vectors in the parallel case.

Listing: `src/ksp/ksp/tutorials/ex2.c`

    static char help[] = "Solves a linear system in parallel with KSP.\n\
    Input parameters include:\n\
      -view_exact_sol   : write exact solution vector to stdout\n\
      -m <mesh_x>       : number of mesh points in x-direction\n\
      -n <mesh_y>       : number of mesh points in y-direction\n\n";

    /*T
       Concepts: KSP^basic parallel example;
       Concepts: KSP^Laplacian, 2d
       Concepts: Laplacian, 2d
       Processors: n
    T*/

    /*
      Include "petscksp.h" so that we can use KSP solvers.
    */
    #include <petscksp.h>

    int main(int argc,char **args)
    {
      Vec            x,b,u;    /* approx solution, RHS, exact solution */
      Mat            A;        /* linear system matrix */
      KSP            ksp;      /* linear solver context */
      PetscReal      norm;     /* norm of solution error */
      PetscInt       i,j,Ii,J,Istart,Iend,m = 8,n = 7,its;
      PetscErrorCode ierr;
      PetscBool      flg;
      PetscScalar    v;

      ierr = PetscInitialize(&argc,&args,(char*)0,help);if (ierr) return ierr;
      ierr = PetscOptionsGetInt(NULL,NULL,"-m",&m,NULL);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = PetscOptionsGetInt(NULL,NULL,"-n",&n,NULL);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      /* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
             Compute the matrix and right-hand-side vector that define
             the linear system, Ax = b.
         - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - */
      /*
         Create parallel matrix, specifying only its global dimensions.
         When using MatCreate(), the matrix format can be specified at
         runtime. Also, the parallel partitioning of the matrix is
         determined by PETSc at runtime.

         Performance tuning note:  For problems of substantial size,
         preallocation of matrix memory is crucial for attaining good
         performance. See the matrix chapter of the users manual for details.
      */
      ierr = MatCreate(PETSC_COMM_WORLD,&A);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatSetSizes(A,PETSC_DECIDE,PETSC_DECIDE,m*n,m*n);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatSetFromOptions(A);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatMPIAIJSetPreallocation(A,5,NULL,5,NULL);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatSeqAIJSetPreallocation(A,5,NULL);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatSeqSBAIJSetPreallocation(A,1,5,NULL);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatMPISBAIJSetPreallocation(A,1,5,NULL,5,NULL);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatMPISELLSetPreallocation(A,5,NULL,5,NULL);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatSeqSELLSetPreallocation(A,5,NULL);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Currently, all PETSc parallel matrix formats are partitioned by
         contiguous chunks of rows across the processors.  Determine which
         rows of the matrix are locally owned.
      */
      ierr = MatGetOwnershipRange(A,&Istart,&Iend);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Set matrix elements for the 2-D, five-point stencil in parallel.
          - Each processor needs to insert only elements that it owns
            locally (but any non-local elements will be sent to the
            appropriate processor during matrix assembly).
          - Always specify global rows and columns of matrix entries.

         Note: this uses the less common natural ordering that orders first
         all the unknowns for x = h then for x = 2h etc; Hence you see J = Ii +- n
         instead of J = I +- m as you might expect. The more standard ordering
         would first do all variables for y = h, then y = 2h etc.

       */
      for (Ii=Istart; Ii<Iend; Ii++) {
        v = -1.0; i = Ii/n; j = Ii - i*n;
        if (i>0)   {J = Ii - n; ierr = MatSetValues(A,1,&Ii,1,&J,&v,ADD_VALUES);CHKERRQ(ierr);}
        if (i<m-1) {J = Ii + n; ierr = MatSetValues(A,1,&Ii,1,&J,&v,ADD_VALUES);CHKERRQ(ierr);}
        if (j>0)   {J = Ii - 1; ierr = MatSetValues(A,1,&Ii,1,&J,&v,ADD_VALUES);CHKERRQ(ierr);}
        if (j<n-1) {J = Ii + 1; ierr = MatSetValues(A,1,&Ii,1,&J,&v,ADD_VALUES);CHKERRQ(ierr);}
        v = 4.0; ierr = MatSetValues(A,1,&Ii,1,&Ii,&v,ADD_VALUES);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      }

      /*
         Assemble matrix, using the 2-step process:
           MatAssemblyBegin(), MatAssemblyEnd()
         Computations can be done while messages are in transition
         by placing code between these two statements.
      */
      ierr = MatAssemblyBegin(A,MAT_FINAL_ASSEMBLY);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatAssemblyEnd(A,MAT_FINAL_ASSEMBLY);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /* A is symmetric. Set symmetric flag to enable ICC/Cholesky preconditioner */
      ierr = MatSetOption(A,MAT_SYMMETRIC,PETSC_TRUE);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Create parallel vectors.
          - We form 1 vector from scratch and then duplicate as needed.
          - When using VecCreate(), VecSetSizes and VecSetFromOptions()
            in this example, we specify only the
            vector's global dimension; the parallel partitioning is determined
            at runtime.
          - When solving a linear system, the vectors and matrices MUST
            be partitioned accordingly.  PETSc automatically generates
            appropriately partitioned matrices and vectors when MatCreate()
            and VecCreate() are used with the same communicator.
          - The user can alternatively specify the local vector and matrix
            dimensions when more sophisticated partitioning is needed
            (replacing the PETSC_DECIDE argument in the VecSetSizes() statement
            below).
      */
      ierr = VecCreate(PETSC_COMM_WORLD,&u);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = VecSetSizes(u,PETSC_DECIDE,m*n);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = VecSetFromOptions(u);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = VecDuplicate(u,&b);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = VecDuplicate(b,&x);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Set exact solution; then compute right-hand-side vector.
         By default we use an exact solution of a vector with all
         elements of 1.0;
      */
      ierr = VecSet(u,1.0);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = MatMult(A,u,b);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         View the exact solution vector if desired
      */
      flg  = PETSC_FALSE;
      ierr = PetscOptionsGetBool(NULL,NULL,"-view_exact_sol",&flg,NULL);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      if (flg) {ierr = VecView(u,PETSC_VIEWER_STDOUT_WORLD);CHKERRQ(ierr);}

      /* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
                    Create the linear solver and set various options
         - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - */
      ierr = KSPCreate(PETSC_COMM_WORLD,&ksp);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Set operators. Here the matrix that defines the linear system
         also serves as the preconditioning matrix.
      */
      ierr = KSPSetOperators(ksp,A,A);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Set linear solver defaults for this problem (optional).
         - By extracting the KSP and PC contexts from the KSP context,
           we can then directly call any KSP and PC routines to set
           various options.
         - The following two statements are optional; all of these
           parameters could alternatively be specified at runtime via
           KSPSetFromOptions().  All of these defaults can be
           overridden at runtime, as indicated below.
      */
      ierr = KSPSetTolerances(ksp,1.e-2/((m+1)*(n+1)),1.e-50,PETSC_DEFAULT,PETSC_DEFAULT);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
        Set runtime options, e.g.,
            -ksp_type <type> -pc_type <type> -ksp_monitor -ksp_rtol <rtol>
        These options will override those specified above as long as
        KSPSetFromOptions() is called _after_ any other customization
        routines.
      */
      ierr = KSPSetFromOptions(ksp);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
                          Solve the linear system
         - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - */

      ierr = KSPSolve(ksp,b,x);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
                          Check the solution and clean up
         - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - */
      ierr = VecAXPY(x,-1.0,u);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = VecNorm(x,NORM_2,&norm);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = KSPGetIterationNumber(ksp,&its);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Print convergence information.  PetscPrintf() produces a single
         print statement from all processes that share a communicator.
         An alternative is PetscFPrintf(), which prints to a file.
      */
      ierr = PetscPrintf(PETSC_COMM_WORLD,"Norm of error %g iterations %D\n",(double)norm,its);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Free work space.  All PETSc objects should be destroyed when they
         are no longer needed.
      */
      ierr = KSPDestroy(&ksp);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = VecDestroy(&u);CHKERRQ(ierr);  ierr = VecDestroy(&x);CHKERRQ(ierr);
      ierr = VecDestroy(&b);CHKERRQ(ierr);  ierr = MatDestroy(&A);CHKERRQ(ierr);

      /*
         Always call PetscFinalize() before exiting a program.  This routine
           - finalizes the PETSc libraries as well as MPI
           - provides summary and diagnostic information if certain runtime
             options are chosen (e.g., -log_view).
      */
      ierr = PetscFinalize();
      return ierr;
    }

### Compiling and Running Programs

The output below illustrates compiling and running a PETSc program using MPICH on an OS X laptop. Note that different machines will have compilation commands as determined by the configuration process. See Writing Application Codes with PETSc for a discussion about how to compile your PETSc programs. Users who are experiencing difficulties linking PETSc programs should refer to the FAQ on the PETSc website https://petsc.org/ or given in the file `$PETSC_DIR/docs/faq.html`.

    $ cd $PETSC_DIR/src/ksp/ksp/tutorials
    $ make ex2
    /Users/patrick/petsc/arch-darwin-double-debug/bin/mpicc -o ex2.o -c -Wall -Wwrite-strings -Wno-strict-aliasing -Wno-unknown-pragmas -Qunused-arguments -fvisibility=hidden -g3   -I/Users/patrick/petsc/include -I/Users/patrick/petsc/arch-darwin-double-debug/include -I/opt/X11/include -I/opt/local/include    `pwd`/ex2.c
    /Users/patrick/petsc/arch-darwin-double-debug/bin/mpicc -Wl,-multiply_defined,suppress -Wl,-multiply_defined -Wl,suppress -Wl,-commons,use_dylibs -Wl,-search_paths_first -Wl,-multiply_defined,suppress -Wl,-multiply_defined -Wl,suppress -Wl,-commons,use_dylibs -Wl,-search_paths_first    -Wall -Wwrite-strings -Wno-strict-aliasing -Wno-unknown-pragmas -Qunused-arguments -fvisibility=hidden -g3  -o ex2 ex2.o  -Wl,-rpath,/Users/patrick/petsc/arch-darwin-double-debug/lib -L/Users/patrick/petsc/arch-darwin-double-debug/lib  -lpetsc -Wl,-rpath,/Users/patrick/petsc/arch-darwin-double-debug/lib -lf2clapack -lf2cblas -Wl,-rpath,/opt/X11/lib -L/opt/X11/lib -lX11 -lssl -lcrypto -Wl,-rpath,/Applications/Xcode.app/Contents/Developer/Toolchains/XcodeDefault.xctoolchain/usr/lib/clang/7.0.2/lib/darwin -L/Applications/Xcode.app/Contents/Developer/Toolchains/XcodeDefault.xctoolchain/usr/lib/clang/7.0.2/lib/darwin -lmpifort -lgfortran -Wl,-rpath,/opt/local/lib/gcc5/gcc/x86_64-apple-darwin14/5.3.0 -L/opt/local/lib/gcc5/gcc/x86_64-apple-darwin14/5.3.0 -Wl,-rpath,/opt/local/lib/gcc5 -L/opt/local/lib/gcc5 -lgfortran -lgcc_ext.10.5 -lquadmath -lm -lclang_rt.osx -lmpicxx -lc++ -Wl,-rpath,/Applications/Xcode.app/Contents/Developer/Toolchains/XcodeDefault.xctoolchain/usr/bin/../lib/clang/7.0.2/lib/darwin -L/Applications/Xcode.app/Contents/Developer/Toolchains/XcodeDefault.xctoolchain/usr/bin/../lib/clang/7.0.2/lib/darwin -lclang_rt.osx -Wl,-rpath,/Users/patrick/petsc/arch-darwin-double-debug/lib -L/Users/patrick/petsc/arch-darwin-double-debug/lib -ldl -lmpi -lpmpi -lSystem -Wl,-rpath,/Applications/Xcode.app/Contents/Developer/Toolchains/XcodeDefault.xctoolchain/usr/bin/../lib/clang/7.0.2/lib/darwin -L/Applications/Xcode.app/Contents/Developer/Toolchains/XcodeDefault.xctoolchain/usr/bin/../lib/clang/7.0.2/lib/darwin -lclang_rt.osx -ldl
    /bin/rm -f ex2.o
    $ $PETSC_DIR/lib/petsc/bin/petscmpiexec -n 1 ./ex2
    Norm of error 0.000156044 iterations 6
    $ $PETSC_DIR/lib/petsc/bin/petscmpiexec -n 2 ./ex2
    Norm of error 0.000411674 iterations 7

## Profiling Programs

The option `-log_view` activates printing of a performance summary, including times, floating point operation (flop) rates, and message-passing activity. Profiling provides details about profiling, including interpretation of the output data below. This particular example involves the solution of a linear system on one processor using GMRES and ILU. The low floating point operation (flop) rates in this example are due to the fact that the code solved a tiny system. We include this example merely to demonstrate the ease of extracting performance information.

    $ $PETSC_DIR/lib/petsc/bin/petscmpiexec -n 1 ./ex1 -n 1000 -pc_type ilu -ksp_type gmres -ksp_rtol 1.e-7 -log_view
    ...
    ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Event                Count      Time (sec)     Flops                             --- Global ---  --- Stage ----  Total
                       Max Ratio  Max     Ratio   Max  Ratio  Mess   AvgLen  Reduct  %T %F %M %L %R  %T %F %M %L %R Mflop/s
    ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

    --- Event Stage 0: Main Stage

    VecMDot                1 1.0 3.2830e-06 1.0 2.00e+03 1.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  0  5  0  0  0   0  5  0  0  0   609
    VecNorm                3 1.0 4.4550e-06 1.0 6.00e+03 1.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  0 14  0  0  0   0 14  0  0  0  1346
    VecScale               2 1.0 4.0110e-06 1.0 2.00e+03 1.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  0  5  0  0  0   0  5  0  0  0   499
    VecCopy                1 1.0 3.2280e-06 1.0 0.00e+00 0.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  0  0  0  0  0   0  0  0  0  0     0
    VecSet                11 1.0 2.5537e-05 1.0 0.00e+00 0.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  2  0  0  0  0   2  0  0  0  0     0
    VecAXPY                2 1.0 2.0930e-06 1.0 4.00e+03 1.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  0 10  0  0  0   0 10  0  0  0  1911
    VecMAXPY               2 1.0 1.1280e-06 1.0 4.00e+03 1.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  0 10  0  0  0   0 10  0  0  0  3546
    VecNormalize           2 1.0 9.3970e-06 1.0 6.00e+03 1.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  1 14  0  0  0   1 14  0  0  0   638
    MatMult                2 1.0 1.1177e-05 1.0 9.99e+03 1.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  1 24  0  0  0   1 24  0  0  0   894
    MatSolve               2 1.0 1.9933e-05 1.0 9.99e+03 1.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  1 24  0  0  0   1 24  0  0  0   501
    MatLUFactorNum         1 1.0 3.5081e-05 1.0 4.00e+03 1.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  2 10  0  0  0   2 10  0  0  0   114
    MatILUFactorSym        1 1.0 4.4259e-05 1.0 0.00e+00 0.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  3  0  0  0  0   3  0  0  0  0     0
    MatAssemblyBegin       1 1.0 8.2015e-08 1.0 0.00e+00 0.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  0  0  0  0  0   0  0  0  0  0     0
    MatAssemblyEnd         1 1.0 3.3536e-05 1.0 0.00e+00 0.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  2  0  0  0  0   2  0  0  0  0     0
    MatGetRowIJ            1 1.0 1.5960e-06 1.0 0.00e+00 0.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  0  0  0  0  0   0  0  0  0  0     0
    MatGetOrdering         1 1.0 3.9791e-05 1.0 0.00e+00 0.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  3  0  0  0  0   3  0  0  0  0     0
    MatView                2 1.0 6.7909e-05 1.0 0.00e+00 0.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  5  0  0  0  0   5  0  0  0  0     0
    KSPGMRESOrthog         1 1.0 7.5970e-06 1.0 4.00e+03 1.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  1 10  0  0  0   1 10  0  0  0   526
    KSPSetUp               1 1.0 3.4424e-05 1.0 0.00e+00 0.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  2  0  0  0  0   2  0  0  0  0     0
    KSPSolve               1 1.0 2.7264e-04 1.0 3.30e+04 1.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 19 79  0  0  0  19 79  0  0  0   121
    PCSetUp                1 1.0 1.5234e-04 1.0 4.00e+03 1.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 11 10  0  0  0  11 10  0  0  0    26
    PCApply                2 1.0 2.1022e-05 1.0 9.99e+03 1.0 0.0e+00 0.0e+00 0.0e+00  1 24  0  0  0   1 24  0  0  0   475
    ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

    Memory usage is given in bytes:

    Object Type          Creations   Destructions     Memory  Descendants' Mem.
    Reports information only for process 0.

    --- Event Stage 0: Main Stage

                  Vector     8              8        76224     0.
                  Matrix     2              2       134212     0.
           Krylov Solver     1              1        18400     0.
          Preconditioner     1              1         1032     0.
               Index Set     3              3        10328     0.
                  Viewer     1              0            0     0.
    ========================================================================================================================
    ...

## Writing Application Codes with PETSc

The examples throughout the library demonstrate the software usage and can serve as templates for developing custom applications. We suggest that new PETSc users examine programs in the directories `$PETSC_DIR/src/<library>/tutorials` where `<library>` denotes any of the PETSc libraries (listed in the following section), such as `SNES` or `KSP` or `TS`. The manual pages located at `$PETSC_DIR/docs/index.htm` or https://petsc.org/release/documentation/ provide links (organized by both routine names and concepts) to the tutorial examples.

To write a new application program using PETSc, we suggest the following procedure:

1. Install and test PETSc according to the instructions at the PETSc web site.

2. Make a working directory for your source code: for example, `mkdir $HOME/application`

3. Change to that working directory; for example,`cd $HOME/application`

4. Copy one of the examples in the directory that corresponds to the class of problem of interest into your working directory, for example, `cp $PETSC_DIR/src/snes/tutorials/ex19.c ex19.c`

5. Copy $PETSC_DIR/share/petsc/Makefile.user to your working directory, for example, `cp $PETSC_DIR/share/petsc/Makefile.user Makefile`

   Note: `Makefile.user` relies on the `pkg-config` tool, and `PETSC_DIR` and `PETSC_ARCH` variables. If `pkg-config` is not available, use `$PETSC_DIR/src/snes/tutorials/makefile`, it is useful for simple usages. `Makefile.user` provides a better template that helps in adapting to more complex usages (for example, an application project might already have a complex makefile, and is now adding in PETSc library usage to it).

6. Compile and run the example program, for example, `make ex19; ./ex19`

7. Use the example program as a starting point for developing a custom code.

We highly recommend against the following since it requires changing your makefile for each new configuration/computing system but if you do not wish to include any PETSc utilities in your makefile, you can use the following commands in the PETSc root directory to get the information needed by your makefile:

    > make getlinklibs getincludedirs getcflags getcxxflags getfortranflags getccompiler getfortrancompiler getcxxcompiler

All the libraries listed need to be linked into your executable and the include directories and flags need to be passed to the compiler. Usually this is done with `CFLAGS=<list of -I and other flags>` and `FFLAGS=<list of -I and other flags>` in your makefile.

## Directory Structure

We conclude this introduction with an overview of the organization of the PETSc software. The root directory of PETSc contains the following directories:

- `docs` (only in the tarball distribution of PETSc; not the git repository) - All documentation for PETSc. The files `manual.pdf` contains the hyperlinked users manual, suitable for printing or on-screen viewering. Includes the subdirectory - `manualpages` (on-line manual pages).

- `conf` - Base PETSc configuration files that define the standard make variables and rules used by PETSc

- `include` - All include files for PETSc that are visible to the user.

- `include/petsc/finclude` - PETSc include files for Fortran programmers using the .F suffix (recommended).

- `include/petsc/private` - Private PETSc include files that should not need to be used by application programmers.

- `share` - Some small test matrices in data files

- `src` - The source code for all PETSc libraries, which currently includes

  - `vec` - vectors,

    - `is` - index sets,

  - `mat` - matrices,

  - `ksp` - complete linear equations solvers,

    - `ksp` - Krylov subspace accelerators,

    - `pc` - preconditioners,

  - `snes` - nonlinear solvers

  - `ts` - ODE solvers and timestepping,

  - `dm` - data management between meshes and solvers, vectors, and matrices,

  - `sys` - general system-related routines,

    - `logging` - PETSc logging and profiling routines,

    - `classes` - low-level classes

      - `draw` - simple graphics,

      - `viewer` - mechanism for printing and visualizing PETSc objects,

      - `bag` - mechanism for saving and loading from disk user data stored in C structs.

      - `random` - random number generators.

Each PETSc source code library directory has the following subdirectories:

- `tutorials` - Programs designed to teach users about PETSc.

    These codes can serve as templates for the design of custom applications.

- `tests` - Programs designed for thorough testing of PETSc. As

    such, these codes are not intended for examination by users.

- `interface` - The calling sequences for the abstract interface to the component. Code here does not know about particular implementations.

- `impls` - Source code for one or more implementations.

- `utils` - Utility routines. Source here may know about the implementations, but ideally will not know about implementations for other components.

For94

  MPI Forum. MPI: a message-passing interface standard. International J. Supercomputing Applications, 1994.

GLS94

  William Gropp, Ewing Lusk, and Anthony Skjellum. Using MPI: Portable Parallel Programming with the Message Passing Interface. MIT Press, 1994.

About This Manual Programming with PETSc/TAO