# DWARF Proposal For Heterogeneous Debugging

- Introduction

- Motivation

- Proposed Changes Relative to DWARF Version 5

  - General Description

    - Attribute Types

    - DWARF Expressions

      - DWARF Operation Expressions

        - Stack Operations

        - Control Flow Operations

        - Value Operations

          - Literal Operations

          - Arithmetic and Logical Operations

          - Type Conversion Operations

          - Special Value Operations

        - Location Description Operations

          - General Location Description Operations

          - Undefined Location Description Operations

          - Memory Location Description Operations

          - Register Location Description Operations

          - Implicit Location Description Operations

          - Composite Location Description Operations

      - DWARF Location List Expressions

    - Segmented Addresses

    - Debugging Information Entry Attributes

  - Program Scope Entities

    - Unit Entities

  - Other Debugger Information

    - Accelerated Access

      - Lookup By Name

        - Contents of the Name Index

        - Data Representation of the Name Index

          - Section Header

    - Line Number Information

      - The Line Number Program Header

        - Standard Content Descriptions

    - Call Frame Information

      - Structure of Call Frame Information

      - Call Frame Instructions

        - Row Creation Instructions

        - CFA Definition Instructions

        - Register Rule Instructions

        - Row State Instructions

        - Padding Instruction

      - Call Frame Instruction Usage

      - Call Frame Calling Address

  - Data Representation

    - 32-Bit and 64-Bit DWARF Formats

    - Format of Debugging Information

      - Attribute Encodings

    - DWARF Expressions

      - Operation Expressions

      - Location List Expressions

    - Source Languages

    - Address Class and Address Space Encodings

    - Line Number Information

    - Call Frame Information

  - Attributes by Tag Value (Informative)

- Examples

- References

Warning

This document describes a provisional proposal for DWARF Version 6 [DWARF] to support heterogeneous debugging. It is not currently fully implemented and is subject to change.

## Introduction

AMD [AMD] has been working on supporting heterogeneous computing through the AMD Radeon Open Compute Platform (ROCm) [AMD-ROCm]. A heterogeneous computing program can be written in a high level language such as C++ or Fortran with OpenMP pragmas, OpenCL, or HIP (a portable C++ programming environment for heterogeneous computing [HIP]). A heterogeneous compiler and runtime allows a program to execute on multiple devices within the same native process. Devices could include CPUs, GPUs, DSPs, FPGAs, or other special purpose accelerators. Currently HIP programs execute on systems with CPUs and GPUs.

ROCm is fully open sourced and includes contributions to open source projects such as LLVM for compilation [LLVM] and GDB for debugging [GDB], as well as collaboration with other third party projects such as the GCC compiler [GCC] and the Perforce TotalView HPC debugger [Perforce-TotalView].

To support debugging heterogeneous programs several features that are not provided by current DWARF Version 5 [DWARF] have been identified. This document contains a collection of proposals to address providing those features.

The Motivation section describes the issues that are being addressed for heterogeneous computing. That is followed by the Proposed Changes Relative to DWARF Version 5 section containing the proposed textual changes relative to the DWARF Version 5 standard. Then there is an Examples section that links to the AMD GPU specific usage of the features in the proposal that includes an example. Finally, there is a References section. There are a number of notes included that raise open questions, or provide alternative approaches considered. The draft proposal seeks to be general in nature and backwards compatible with DWARF Version 5. Its goal is to be applicable to meeting the needs of any heterogeneous system and not be vendor or architecture specific.

A fundamental aspect of the draft proposal is that it allows DWARF expression location descriptions as stack elements. The draft proposal is based on DWARF Version 5 and maintains compatibility with DWARF Version 5. After attempting several alternatives, the current thinking is that such an addition to DWARF Version 5 is the simplest and cleanest way to support debugging optimized GPU code. It also appears to be generally useful and may be able to address other reported DWARF issues, as well as being helpful in providing better optimization support for non-GPU code.

General feedback on this draft proposal is sought, together with suggestions on how to clarify, simplify, or organize it before submitting it as a formal DWARF proposal. The current draft proposal is large and may need to be split into separate proposals before formal submission. Any suggestions on how best to do that are appreciated. However, at the initial review stage it is believed there is value in presenting a unified proposal as there are mutual dependencies between the various parts that would not be as apparent if it was broken up into separate independent proposals.

We are in the process of modifying LLVM and GDB to support this draft proposal which is providing experience and insights. We plan to upstream the changes to those projects for any final form of the proposal.

The author very much appreciates the input provided so far by many others which has been incorporated into this current version.

## Motivation

This document proposes a set of backwards compatible extensions to DWARF Version 5 [DWARF] for consideration of inclusion into a future DWARF Version 6 standard to support heterogeneous debugging.

The remainder of this section provides motivation for each proposed feature in terms of heterogeneous debugging on commercially available AMD GPU hardware (AMDGPU). The goal is to add support to the AMD [AMD] open source Radeon Open Compute Platform (ROCm) [AMD-ROCm] which is an implementation of the industry standard for heterogeneous computing devices defined by the Heterogeneous System Architecture (HSA) Foundation [HSA]. ROCm includes the LLVM compiler [LLVM] with upstreamed support for AMDGPU [AMDGPU-LLVM]. The goal is to also add the GDB debugger [GDB] with upstreamed support for AMDGPU [AMD-ROCgdb]. In addition, the goal is to work with third parties to enable support for AMDGPU debugging in the GCC compiler [GCC] and the Perforce TotalView HPC debugger [Perforce-TotalView].

However, the proposal is intended to be vendor and architecture neutral. It is believed to apply to other heterogeous hardware devices including GPUs, DSPs, FPGAs, and other specialized hardware. These collectively include similar characteristics and requirements as AMDGPU devices. Parts of the proposal can also apply to traditional CPU hardware that supports large vector registers. Compilers can map source languages and extensions that describe large scale parallel execution onto the lanes of the vector registers. This is common in programming languages used in ML and HPC. The proposal also includes improved support for optimized code on any architecture. Some of the generalizations may also benefit other issues that have been raised.

The proposal has evolved though collaboration with many individuals and active prototyping within the GDB debugger and LLVM compiler. Input has also been very much appreciated from the developers working on the Perforce TotalView HPC Debugger and GCC compiler.

The AMDGPU has several features that require additional DWARF functionality in order to support optimized code.

AMDGPU optimized code may spill vector registers to non-global address space memory, and this spilling may be done only for lanes that are active on entry to the subprogram. To support this, a location description that can be created as a masked select is required. See `DW_OP_LLVM_select_bit_piece`.

Since the active lane mask may be held in a register, a way to get the value of a register on entry to a subprogram is required. To support this an operation that returns the caller value of a register as specified by the Call Frame Information (CFI) is required. See `DW_OP_LLVM_call_frame_entry_reg` and Call Frame Information.

Current DWARF uses an empty expression to indicate an undefined location description. Since the masked select composite location description operation takes more than one location description, it is necessary to have an explicit way to specify an undefined location description. Otherwise it is not possible to specify that a particular one of the input location descriptions is undefined. See `DW_OP_LLVM_undefined`.

CFI describes restoring callee saved registers that are spilled. Currently CFI only allows a location description that is a register, memory address, or implicit location description. AMDGPU optimized code may spill scalar registers into portions of vector registers. This requires extending CFI to allow any location description. See Call Frame Information.

The vector registers of the AMDGPU are represented as their full wavefront size, meaning the wavefront size times the dword size. This reflects the actual hardware and allows the compiler to generate DWARF for languages that map a thread to the complete wavefront. It also allows more efficient DWARF to be generated to describe the CFI as only a single expression is required for the whole vector register, rather than a separate expression for each lane’s dword of the vector register. It also allows the compiler to produce DWARF that indexes the vector register if it spills scalar registers into portions of a vector registers.

Since DWARF stack value entries have a base type and AMDGPU registers are a vector of dwords, the ability to specify that a base type is a vector is required. See `DW_AT_LLVM_vector_size`.

If the source language is mapped onto the AMDGPU wavefronts in a SIMT manner, then the variable DWARF location expressions must compute the location for a single lane of the wavefront. Therefore, a DWARF operation is required to denote the current lane, much like `DW_OP_push_object_address` denotes the current object. The `DW_OP_*piece` operations only allow literal indices. Therefore, a way to use a computed offset of an arbitrary location description (such as a vector register) is required. See `DW_OP_LLVM_push_lane`, `DW_OP_LLVM_offset`, `DW_OP_LLVM_offset_uconst`, and `DW_OP_LLVM_bit_offset`.

If the source language is mapped onto the AMDGPU wavefronts in a SIMT manner the compiler can use the AMDGPU execution mask register to control which lanes are active. To describe the conceptual location of non-active lanes a DWARF expression is needed that can compute a per lane PC. For efficiency, this is done for the wavefront as a whole. This expression benefits by having a masked select composite location description operation. This requires an attribute for source location of each lane. The AMDGPU may update the execution mask for whole wavefront operations and so needs an attribute that computes the current active lane mask. See `DW_OP_LLVM_select_bit_piece`, `DW_OP_LLVM_extend`, `DW_AT_LLVM_lane_pc`, and `DW_AT_LLVM_active_lane`.

AMDGPU needs to be able to describe addresses that are in different kinds of memory. Optimized code may need to describe a variable that resides in pieces that are in different kinds of storage which may include parts of registers, memory that is in a mixture of memory kinds, implicit values, or be undefined. DWARF has the concept of segment addresses. However, the segment cannot be specified within a DWARF expression, which is only able to specify the offset portion of a segment address. The segment index is only provided by the entity that specifies the DWARF expression. Therefore, the segment index is a property that can only be put on complete objects, such as a variable. That makes it only suitable for describing an entity (such as variable or subprogram code) that is in a single kind of memory. Therefore, AMDGPU uses the DWARF concept of address spaces. For example, a variable may be allocated in a register that is partially spilled to the call stack which is in the private address space, and partially spilled to the local address space.

DWARF uses the concept of an address in many expression operations but does not define how it relates to address spaces. For example, `DW_OP_push_object_address` pushes the address of an object. Other contexts implicitly push an address on the stack before evaluating an expression. For example, the `DW_AT_use_location` attribute of the `DW_TAG_ptr_to_member_type`. The expression that uses the address needs to do so in a general way and not need to be dependent on the address space of the address. For example, a pointer to member value may want to be applied to an object that may reside in any address space.

The number of registers and the cost of memory operations is much higher for AMDGPU than a typical CPU. The compiler attempts to optimize whole variables and arrays into registers. Currently DWARF only allows `DW_OP_push_object_address` and related operations to work with a global memory location. To support AMDGPU optimized code it is required to generalize DWARF to allow any location description to be used. This allows registers, or composite location descriptions that may be a mixture of memory, registers, or even implicit values.

DWARF Version 5 does not allow location descriptions to be entries on the DWARF stack. They can only be the final result of the evaluation of a DWARF expression. However, by allowing a location description to be a first-class entry on the DWARF stack it becomes possible to compose expressions containing both values and location descriptions naturally. It allows objects to be located in any kind of memory address space, in registers, be implicit values, be undefined, or a composite of any of these. By extending DWARF carefully, all existing DWARF expressions can retain their current semantic meaning. DWARF has implicit conversions that convert from a value that represents an address in the default address space to a memory location description. This can be extended to allow a default address space memory location description to be implicitly converted back to its address value. This allows all DWARF Version 5 expressions to retain their same meaning, while adding the ability to explicitly create memory location descriptions in non-default address spaces and generalizing the power of composite location descriptions to any kind of location description. See DWARF Operation Expressions.

To allow composition of composite location descriptions, an explicit operation that indicates the end of the definition of a composite location description is required. This can be implied if the end of a DWARF expression is reached, allowing current DWARF expressions to remain legal. See `DW_OP_LLVM_piece_end`.

The `DW_OP_plus` and `DW_OP_minus` can be defined to operate on a memory location description in the default target architecture specific address space and a generic type value to produce an updated memory location description. This allows them to continue to be used to offset an address. To generalize offsetting to any location description, including location descriptions that describe when bytes are in registers, are implicit, or a composite of these, the `DW_OP_LLVM_offset`, `DW_OP_LLVM_offset_uconst`, and `DW_OP_LLVM_bit_offset` offset operations are added. Unlike `DW_OP_plus`, `DW_OP_plus_uconst`, and `DW_OP_minus` arithmetic operations, these do not define that integer overflow causes wrap-around. The offset operations can operate on location storage of any size. For example, implicit location storage could be any number of bits in size. It is simpler to define offsets that exceed the size of the location storage as being ill-formed, than having to force an implementation to support potentially infinite precision offsets to allow it to correctly track a series of positive and negative offsets that may transiently overflow or underflow, but end up in range. This is simple for the arithmetic operations as they are defined in terms of two’s compliment arithmetic on a base type of a fixed size.

Having the offset operations allows `DW_OP_push_object_address` to push a location description that may be in a register, or be an implicit value, and the DWARF expression of `DW_TAG_ptr_to_member_type` can contain them to offset within it. `DW_OP_LLVM_bit_offset` generalizes DWARF to work with bit fields which is not possible in DWARF Version 5.

The DWARF `DW_OP_xderef*` operations allow a value to be converted into an address of a specified address space which is then read. But it provides no way to create a memory location description for an address in the non-default address space. For example, AMDGPU variables can be allocated in the local address space at a fixed address. It is required to have an operation to create an address in a specific address space that can be used to define the location description of the variable. Defining this operation to produce a location description allows the size of addresses in an address space to be larger than the generic type. See `DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address`.

If the `DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address` operation had to produce a value that can be implicitly converted to a memory location description, then it would be limited to the size of the generic type which matches the size of the default address space. Its value would be unspecified and likely not match any value in the actual program. By making the result a location description, it allows a consumer great freedom in how it implements it. The implicit conversion back to a value can be limited only to the default address space to maintain compatibility with DWARF Version 5. For other address spaces the producer can use the new operations that explicitly specify the address space.

`DW_OP_breg*` treats the register as containing an address in the default address space. It is required to be able to specify the address space of the register value. See `DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_bregx`.

Similarly, `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` treats its implicit pointer value as being in the default address space. It is required to be able to specify the address space of the pointer value. See `DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_implicit_pointer`.

Almost all uses of addresses in DWARF are limited to defining location descriptions, or to be dereferenced to read memory. The exception is `DW_CFA_val_offset` which uses the address to set the value of a register. By defining the CFA DWARF expression as being a memory location description, it can maintain what address space it is, and that can be used to convert the offset address back to an address in that address space. See Call Frame Information.

This approach allows all existing DWARF to have the identical semantics. It allows the compiler to explicitly specify the address space it is using. For example, a compiler could choose to access private memory in a swizzled manner when mapping a source language to a wavefront in a SIMT manner, or to access it in an unswizzled manner if mapping the same language with the wavefront being the thread. It also allows the compiler to mix the address space it uses to access private memory. For example, for SIMT it can still spill entire vector registers in an unswizzled manner, while using a swizzled private memory for SIMT variable access. This approach allows memory location descriptions for different address spaces to be combined using the regular `DW_OP_*piece` operations.

Location descriptions are an abstraction of storage, they give freedom to the consumer on how to implement them. They allow the address space to encode lane information so they can be used to read memory with only the memory description and no extra arguments. The same set of operations can operate on locations independent of their kind of storage. The `DW_OP_deref*` therefore can be used on any storage kind. `DW_OP_xderef*` is unnecessary except to become a more compact way to convert a non-default address space address followed by dereferencing it.

In DWARF Version 5 a location description is defined as a single location description or a location list. A location list is defined as either effectively an undefined location description or as one or more single location descriptions to describe an object with multiple places. The `DW_OP_push_object_address` and `DW_OP_call*` operations can put a location description on the stack. Furthermore, debugger information entry attributes such as `DW_AT_data_member_location`, `DW_AT_use_location`, and `DW_AT_vtable_elem_location` are defined as pushing a location description on the expression stack before evaluating the expression. However, DWARF Version 5 only allows the stack to contain values and so only a single memory address can be on the stack which makes these incapable of handling location descriptions with multiple places, or places other than memory. Since this proposal allows the stack to contain location descriptions, the operations are generalized to support location descriptions that can have multiple places. This is backwards compatible with DWARF Version 5 and allows objects with multiple places to be supported. For example, the expression that describes how to access the field of an object can be evaluated with a location description that has multiple places and will result in a location description with multiple places as expected. With this change, the separate DWARF Version 5 sections that described DWARF expressions and location lists have been unified into a single section that describes DWARF expressions in general. This unification seems to be a natural consequence and a necessity of allowing location descriptions to be part of the evaluation stack.

For those familiar with the definition of location descriptions in DWARF Version 5, the definition in this proposal is presented differently, but does in fact define the same concept with the same fundamental semantics. However, it does so in a way that allows the concept to extend to support address spaces, bit addressing, the ability for composite location descriptions to be composed of any kind of location description, and the ability to support objects located at multiple places. Collectively these changes expand the set of processors that can be supported and improves support for optimized code.

Several approaches were considered, and the one proposed appears to be the cleanest and offers the greatest improvement of DWARF’s ability to support optimized code. Examining the GDB debugger and LLVM compiler, it appears only to require modest changes as they both already have to support general use of location descriptions. It is anticipated that will also be the case for other debuggers and compilers.

As an experiment, GDB was modified to evaluate DWARF Version 5 expressions with location descriptions as stack entries and implicit conversions. All GDB tests have passed, except one that turned out to be an invalid test by DWARF Version 5 rules. The code in GDB actually became simpler as all evaluation was on the stack and there was no longer a need to maintain a separate structure for the location description result. This gives confidence of the backwards compatibility.

Since the AMDGPU supports languages such as OpenCL [OpenCL], there is a need to define source language address classes so they can be used in a consistent way by consumers. It would also be desirable to add support for using them in defining language types rather than the current target architecture specific address spaces. See Segmented Addresses.

A `DW_AT_LLVM_augmentation` attribute is added to a compilation unit debugger information entry to indicate that there is additional target architecture specific information in the debugging information entries of that compilation unit. This allows a consumer to know what extensions are present in the debugger information entries as is possible with the augmentation string of other sections. The format that should be used for the augmentation string in the lookup by name table and CFI Common Information Entry is also recommended to allow a consumer to parse the string when it contains information from multiple vendors.

The AMDGPU supports programming languages that include online compilation where the source text may be created at runtime. Therefore, a way to embed the source text in the debug information is required. For example, the OpenCL language runtime supports online compilation. See Line Number Information.

Support to allow MD5 checksums to be optionally present in the line table is added. This allows linking together compilation units where some have MD5 checksums and some do not. In DWARF Version 5 the file timestamp and file size can be optional, but if the MD5 checksum is present it must be valid for all files. See Line Number Information.

Support is added for the HIP programming language [HIP] which is supported by the AMDGPU. See Unit Entities.

The following sections provide the definitions for the additional operations, as well as clarifying how existing expression operations, CFI operations, and attributes behave with respect to generalized location descriptions that support address spaces and location descriptions that support multiple places. It has been defined such that it is backwards compatible with DWARF Version 5. The definitions are intended to fully define well-formed DWARF in a consistent style based on the DWARF Version 5 specification. Non-normative text is shown in italics.

The names for the new operations, attributes, and constants include “`LLVM`” and are encoded with vendor specific codes so this proposal can be implemented as an LLVM vendor extension to DWARF Version 5. If accepted these names would not include the “`LLVM`” and would not use encodings in the vendor range.

The proposal is described in Proposed Changes Relative to DWARF Version 5 and is organized to follow the section ordering of DWARF Version 5. It includes notes to indicate the corresponding DWARF Version 5 sections to which they pertain. Other notes describe additional changes that may be worth considering, and to raise questions.

## Proposed Changes Relative to DWARF Version 5

### General Description

#### Attribute Types

Note

This augments DWARF Version 5 section 2.2 and Table 2.2.

The following table provides the additional attributes. See Debugging Information Entry Attributes.

Attribute names
Attribute | Usage
--- | ---
`DW_AT_LLVM_active_lane` | SIMD or SIMT active lanes
`DW_AT_LLVM_augmentation` | Compilation unit augmentation string
`DW_AT_LLVM_lane_pc` | SIMD or SIMT lane program location
`DW_AT_LLVM_lanes` | SIMD or SIMT thread lane count
`DW_AT_LLVM_vector_size` | Base type vector size

#### DWARF Expressions

Note

This section, and its nested sections, replaces DWARF Version 5 section 2.5 and section 2.6. The new proposed DWARF expression operations are defined as well as clarifying the extensions to already existing DWARF Version 5 operations. It is based on the text of the existing DWARF Version 5 standard.

DWARF expressions describe how to compute a value or specify a location.

The evaluation of a DWARF expression can provide the location of an object, the value of an array bound, the length of a dynamic string, the desired value itself, and so on.

The evaluation of a DWARF expression can either result in a value or a location description:

value

> A value has a type and a literal value. It can represent a literal value of any supported base type of the target architecture. The base type specifies the size and encoding of the literal value.

> Note

> It may be desirable to add an implicit pointer base type encoding. It would be used for the type of the value that is produced when the `DW_OP_deref*` operation retrieves the full contents of an implicit pointer location storage created by the `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` or `DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_implicit_pointer` operations. The literal value would record the debugging information entry and byte dispacement specified by the associated `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` or `DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_implicit_pointer` operations.

> Instead of a base type, a value can have a distinguished generic type, which is an integral type that has the size of an address in the target architecture default address space and unspecified signedness.

> The generic type is the same as the unspecified type used for stack operations defined in DWARF Version 4 and before.

> An integral type is a base type that has an encoding of `DW_ATE_signed`, `DW_ATE_signed_char`, `DW_ATE_unsigned`, `DW_ATE_unsigned_char`, `DW_ATE_boolean`, or any target architecture defined integral encoding in the inclusive range `DW_ATE_lo_user` to `DW_ATE_hi_user`.

> Note

> It is unclear if `DW_ATE_address` is an integral type. GDB does not seem to consider it as integral.

location description

> Debugging information must provide consumers a way to find the location of program variables, determine the bounds of dynamic arrays and strings, and possibly to find the base address of a subprogram’s stack frame or the return address of a subprogram. Furthermore, to meet the needs of recent computer architectures and optimization techniques, debugging information must be able to describe the location of an object whose location changes over the object’s lifetime, and may reside at multiple locations simultaneously during parts of an object’s lifetime.

> Information about the location of program objects is provided by location descriptions.

> Location descriptions can consist of one or more single location descriptions.

> A single location description specifies the location storage that holds a program object and a position within the location storage where the program object starts. The position within the location storage is expressed as a bit offset relative to the start of the location storage.

> A location storage is a linear stream of bits that can hold values. Each location storage has a size in bits and can be accessed using a zero-based bit offset. The ordering of bits within a location storage uses the bit numbering and direction conventions that are appropriate to the current language on the target architecture.

> There are five kinds of location storage:

> memory location storage

>   Corresponds to the target architecture memory address spaces.

> register location storage

>   Corresponds to the target architecture registers.

> implicit location storage

>   Corresponds to fixed values that can only be read.

> undefined location storage

>   Indicates no value is available and therefore cannot be read or written.

> composite location storage

>   Allows a mixture of these where some bits come from one location storage and some from another location storage, or from disjoint parts of the same location storage.

> Note

> It may be better to add an implicit pointer location storage kind used by the `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` and `DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_implicit_pointer` operations. It would specify the debugger information entry and byte offset provided by the operations.

> Location descriptions are a language independent representation of addressing rules. They are created using DWARF operation expressions of arbitrary complexity. They can be the result of evaluting a debugger information entry attribute that specifies an operation expression. In this usage they can describe the location of an object as long as its lifetime is either static or the same as the lexical block (see DWARF Version 5 section 3.5) that owns it, and it does not move during its lifetime. They can be the result of evaluating a debugger information entry attribute that specifies a location list expression. In this usage they can describe the location of an object that has a limited lifetime, changes its location during its lifetime, or has multiple locations over part or all of its lifetime.

> If a location description has more than one single location description, the DWARF expression is ill-formed if the object value held in each single location description’s position within the associated location storage is not the same value, except for the parts of the value that are uninitialized.

> A location description that has more than one single location description can only be created by a location list expression that has overlapping program location ranges, or certain expression operations that act on a location description that has more than one single location description. There are no operation expression operations that can directly create a location description with more than one single location description.

> A location description with more than one single location description can be used to describe objects that reside in more than one piece of storage at the same time. An object may have more than one location as a result of optimization. For example, a value that is only read may be promoted from memory to a register for some region of code, but later code may revert to reading the value from memory as the register may be used for other purposes. For the code region where the value is in a register, any change to the object value must be made in both the register and the memory so both regions of code will read the updated value.

> A consumer of a location description with more than one single location description can read the object’s value from any of the single location descriptions (since they all refer to location storage that has the same value), but must write any changed value to all the single location descriptions.

A DWARF expression can either be encoded as a operation expression (see DWARF Operation Expressions), or as a location list expression (see DWARF Location List Expressions).

A DWARF expression is evaluated in the context of:

A current subprogram

  This may be used in the evaluation of register access operations to support virtual unwinding of the call stack (see Call Frame Information).

A current program location

  This may be used in the evaluation of location list expressions to select amongst multiple program location ranges. It should be the program location corresponding to the current subprogram. If the current subprogram was reached by virtual call stack unwinding, then the program location will correspond to the associated call site.

An initial stack

  This is a list of values or location descriptions that will be pushed on the operation expression evaluation stack in the order provided before evaluation of an operation expression starts.

  Some debugger information entries have attributes that evaluate their DWARF expression value with initial stack entries. In all other cases the initial stack is empty.

When a DWARF expression is evaluated, it may be specified whether a value or location description is required as the result kind.

If a result kind is specified, and the result of the evaluation does not match the specified result kind, then the implicit conversions described in Memory Location Description Operations are performed if valid. Otherwise, the DWARF expression is ill-formed.

##### DWARF Operation Expressions

An operation expression is comprised of a stream of operations, each consisting of an opcode followed by zero or more operands. The number of operands is implied by the opcode.

Operations represent a postfix operation on a simple stack machine. Each stack entry can hold either a value or a location description. Operations can act on entries on the stack, including adding entries and removing entries. If the kind of a stack entry does not match the kind required by the operation and is not implicitly convertible to the required kind (see Memory Location Description Operations), then the DWARF operation expression is ill-formed.

Evaluation of an operation expression starts with an empty stack on which the entries from the initial stack provided by the context are pushed in the order provided. Then the operations are evaluated, starting with the first operation of the stream, until one past the last operation of the stream is reached. The result of the evaluation is:

- If evaluation of the DWARF expression requires a location description, then:

  - If the stack is empty, the result is a location description with one undefined location description.

    This rule is for backwards compatibility with DWARF Version 5 which has no explicit operation to create an undefined location description, and uses an empty operation expression for this purpose.

  - If the top stack entry is a location description, or can be converted to one (see Memory Location Description Operations), then the result is that, possibly converted, location description. Any other entries on the stack are discarded.

  - Otherwise the DWARF expression is ill-formed.

    Note

    Could define this case as returning an implicit location description as if the `DW_OP_implicit` operation is performed.

- If evaluation of the DWARF expression requires a value, then:

  - If the top stack entry is a value, or can be converted to one (see Memory Location Description Operations), then the result is that, possibly converted, value. Any other entries on the stack are discarded.

  - Otherwise the DWARF expression is ill-formed.

- If evaluation of the DWARF expression does not specify if a value or location description is required, then:

  - If the stack is empty, the result is a location description with one undefined location description.

    This rule is for backwards compatibility with DWARF Version 5 which has no explicit operation to create an undefined location description, and uses an empty operation expression for this purpose.

    Note

    This rule is consistent with the rule above for when a location description is requested. However, GDB appears to report this as an error and no GDB tests appear to cause an empty stack for this case.

  - Otherwise, the top stack entry is returned. Any other entries on the stack are discarded.

An operation expression is encoded as a byte block with some form of prefix that specifies the byte count. It can be used:

- as the value of a debugging information entry attribute that is encoded using class `exprloc` (see DWARF Version 5 section 7.5.5),

- as the operand to certain operation expression operations,

- as the operand to certain call frame information operations (see Call Frame Information),

- and in location list entries (see DWARF Location List Expressions).

###### Stack Operations

The following operations manipulate the DWARF stack. Operations that index the stack assume that the top of the stack (most recently added entry) has index 0. They allow the stack entries to be either a value or location description.

If any stack entry accessed by a stack operation is an incomplete composite location description (see Composite Location Description Operations), then the DWARF expression is ill-formed.

Note

These operations now support stack entries that are values and location descriptions.

Note

If it is desired to also make them work with incomplete composite location descriptions, then would need to define that the composite location storage specified by the incomplete composite location description is also replicated when a copy is pushed. This ensures that each copy of the incomplete composite location description can update the composite location storage they specify independently.

1. `DW_OP_dup`

   `DW_OP_dup` duplicates the stack entry at the top of the stack.

2. `DW_OP_drop`

   `DW_OP_drop` pops the stack entry at the top of the stack and discards it.

3. `DW_OP_pick`

   `DW_OP_pick` has a single unsigned 1-byte operand that represents an index I. A copy of the stack entry with index I is pushed onto the stack.

4. `DW_OP_over`

   `DW_OP_over` pushes a copy of the entry with index 1.

   This is equivalent to a ``DW_OP_pick 1`` operation.

5. `DW_OP_swap`

   `DW_OP_swap` swaps the top two stack entries. The entry at the top of the stack becomes the second stack entry, and the second stack entry becomes the top of the stack.

6. `DW_OP_rot`

   `DW_OP_rot` rotates the first three stack entries. The entry at the top of the stack becomes the third stack entry, the second entry becomes the top of the stack, and the third entry becomes the second entry.

###### Control Flow Operations

The following operations provide simple control of the flow of a DWARF operation expression.

1. `DW_OP_nop`

   `DW_OP_nop` is a place holder. It has no effect on the DWARF stack entries.

2. `DW_OP_le`, `DW_OP_ge`, `DW_OP_eq`, `DW_OP_lt`, `DW_OP_gt`, `DW_OP_ne`

   Note

   The same as in DWARF Version 5 section 2.5.1.5.

3. `DW_OP_skip`

   `DW_OP_skip` is an unconditional branch. Its single operand is a 2-byte signed integer constant. The 2-byte constant is the number of bytes of the DWARF expression to skip forward or backward from the current operation, beginning after the 2-byte constant.

   If the updated position is at one past the end of the last operation, then the operation expression evaluation is complete.

   Otherwise, the DWARF expression is ill-formed if the updated operation position is not in the range of the first to last operation inclusive, or not at the start of an operation.

4. `DW_OP_bra`

   `DW_OP_bra` is a conditional branch. Its single operand is a 2-byte signed integer constant. This operation pops the top of stack. If the value popped is not the constant 0, the 2-byte constant operand is the number of bytes of the DWARF operation expression to skip forward or backward from the current operation, beginning after the 2-byte constant.

   If the updated position is at one past the end of the last operation, then the operation expression evaluation is complete.

   Otherwise, the DWARF expression is ill-formed if the updated operation position is not in the range of the first to last operation inclusive, or not at the start of an operation.

5. `DW_OP_call2, DW_OP_call4, DW_OP_call_ref`

   `DW_OP_call2`, `DW_OP_call4`, and `DW_OP_call_ref` perform DWARF procedure calls during evaluation of a DWARF expression.

   `DW_OP_call2` and `DW_OP_call4`, have one operand that is a 2- or 4-byte unsigned offset, respectively, of a debugging information entry D in the current compilation unit.

   `DW_OP_call_ref` has one operand that is a 4-byte unsigned value in the 32-bit DWARF format, or an 8-byte unsigned value in the 64-bit DWARF format, that represents an offset of a debugging information entry D in a `.debug_info` section, which may be contained in an executable or shared object file other than that containing the operation. For references from one executable or shared object file to another, the relocation must be performed by the consumer.

   Operand interpretation of `DW_OP_call2`, `DW_OP_call4`, and `DW_OP_call_ref` is exactly like that for `DW_FORM_ref2`, ``DW_FORM_ref4``*, and `DW_FORM_ref_addr`, respectively.

   The call operation is evaluated by:

   - If D has a `DW_AT_location` attribute that is encoded as a `exprloc` that specifies an operation expression E, then execution of the current operation expression continues from the first operation of E. Execution continues until one past the last operation of E is reached, at which point execution continues with the operation following the call operation. Since E is evaluated on the same stack as the call, E can use, add, and/or remove entries already on the stack.

     Values on the stack at the time of the call may be used as parameters by the called expression and values left on the stack by the called expression may be used as return values by prior agreement between the calling and called expressions.

   - If D has a `DW_AT_location` attribute that is encoded as a `loclist` or `loclistsptr`, then the specified location list expression E is evaluated, and the resulting location description is pushed on the stack. The evaluation of E uses a context that has the same current frame and current program location as the current operation expression, but an empty initial stack.

     Note

     This rule avoids having to define how to execute a matched location list entry operation expression on the same stack as the call when there are multiple matches. But it allows the call to obtain the location description for a variable or formal parameter which may use a location list expression.

     An alternative is to treat the case when D has a `DW_AT_location` attribute that is encoded as a `loclist` or `loclistsptr`, and the specified location list expression E’ matches a single location list entry with operation expression E, the same as the `exprloc` case and evaluate on the same stack.

     But this is not attractive as if the attribute is for a variable that happens to end with a non-singleton stack, it will not simply put a location description on the stack. Presumably the intent of using `DW_OP_call*` on a variable or formal parameter debugger information entry is to push just one location description on the stack. That location description may have more than one single location description.

     The previous rule for `exprloc` also has the same problem as normally a variable or formal parameter location expression may leave multiple entries on the stack and only return the top entry.

     GDB implements `DW_OP_call*` by always executing E on the same stack. If the location list has multiple matching entries, it simply picks the first one and ignores the rest. This seems fundementally at odds with the desire to supporting multiple places for variables.

     So, it feels like `DW_OP_call*` should both support pushing a location description on the stack for a variable or formal parameter, and also support being able to execute an operation expression on the same stack. Being able to specify a different operation expression for different program locations seems a desirable feature to retain.

     A solution to that is to have a distinct `DW_AT_LLVM_proc` attribute for the `DW_TAG_dwarf_procedure` debugging information entry. Then the `DW_AT_location` attribute expression is always executed separately and pushes a location description (that may have multiple single location descriptions), and the `DW_AT_LLVM_proc` attribute expression is always executed on the same stack and can leave anything on the stack.

     The `DW_AT_LLVM_proc` attribute could have the new classes `exprproc`, `loclistproc`, and `loclistsptrproc` to indicate that the expression is executed on the same stack. `exprproc` is the same encoding as `exprloc`. `loclistproc` and `loclistsptrproc` are the same encoding as their non-`proc` counterparts except the DWARF is ill-formed if the location list does not match exactly one location list entry and a default entry is required. These forms indicate explicitly that the matched single operation expression must be executed on the same stack. This is better than ad hoc special rules for `loclistproc` and `loclistsptrproc` which are currently clearly defined to always return a location description. The producer then explicitly indicates the intent through the attribute classes.

     Such a change would be a breaking change for how GDB implements `DW_OP_call*`. However, are the breaking cases actually occurring in practice? GDB could implement the current approach for DWARF Version 5, and the new semantics for DWARF Version 6 which has been done for some other features.

     Another option is to limit the execution to be on the same stack only to the evaluation of an expression E that is the value of a `DW_AT_location` attribute of a `DW_TAG_dwarf_procedure` debugging information entry. The DWARF would be ill-formed if E is a location list expression that does not match exactly one location list entry. In all other cases the evaluation of an expression E that is the value of a `DW_AT_location` attribute would evaluate E with a context that has the same current frame and current program location as the current operation expression, but an empty initial stack, and push the resulting location description on the stack.

   - If D has a `DW_AT_const_value` attribute with a value V, then it is as if a `DW_OP_implicit_value V` operation was executed.

     This allows a call operation to be used to compute the location description for any variable or formal parameter regardless of whether the producer has optimized it to a constant. This is consistent with the ``DW_OP_implicit_pointer`` operation.

     Note

     Alternatively, could deprecate using `DW_AT_const_value` for `DW_TAG_variable` and `DW_TAG_formal_parameter` debugger information entries that are constants and instead use `DW_AT_location` with an operation expression that results in a location description with one implicit location description. Then this rule would not be required.

   - Otherwise, there is no effect and no changes are made to the stack.

     Note

     In DWARF Version 5, if D does not have a `DW_AT_location` then `DW_OP_call*` is defined to have no effect. It is unclear that this is the right definition as a producer should be able to rely on using `DW_OP_call*` to get a location description for any non-`DW_TAG_dwarf_procedure` debugging information entries. Also, the producer should not be creating DWARF with `DW_OP_call*` to a `DW_TAG_dwarf_procedure` that does not have a `DW_AT_location` attribute. So, should this case be defined as an ill-formed DWARF expression?

   The `DW_TAG_dwarf_procedure` debugging information entry can be used to define DWARF procedures that can be called.

###### Value Operations

This section describes the operations that push values on the stack.

Each value stack entry has a type and a literal value and can represent a literal value of any supported base type of the target architecture. The base type specifies the size and encoding of the literal value.

Instead of a base type, value stack entries can have a distinguished generic type, which is an integral type that has the size of an address in the target architecture default address space and unspecified signedness.

The generic type is the same as the unspecified type used for stack operations defined in DWARF Version 4 and before.

An integral type is a base type that has an encoding of `DW_ATE_signed`, `DW_ATE_signed_char`, `DW_ATE_unsigned`, `DW_ATE_unsigned_char`, `DW_ATE_boolean`, or any target architecture defined integral encoding in the inclusive range `DW_ATE_lo_user` to `DW_ATE_hi_user`.

Note

Unclear if `DW_ATE_address` is an integral type. GDB does not seem to consider it as integral.

<h7>Literal Operations</h7>

The following operations all push a literal value onto the DWARF stack.

Operations other than `DW_OP_const_type` push a value V with the generic type. If V is larger than the generic type, then V is truncated to the generic type size and the low-order bits used.

1. `DW_OP_lit0`, `DW_OP_lit1`, …, `DW_OP_lit31`

   `DW_OP_lit<N>` operations encode an unsigned literal value N from 0 through 31, inclusive. They push the value N with the generic type.

2. `DW_OP_const1u`, `DW_OP_const2u`, `DW_OP_const4u`, `DW_OP_const8u`

   `DW_OP_const<N>u` operations have a single operand that is a 1, 2, 4, or 8-byte unsigned integer constant U, respectively. They push the value U with the generic type.

3. `DW_OP_const1s`, `DW_OP_const2s`, `DW_OP_const4s`, `DW_OP_const8s`

   `DW_OP_const<N>s` operations have a single operand that is a 1, 2, 4, or 8-byte signed integer constant S, respectively. They push the value S with the generic type.

4. `DW_OP_constu`

   `DW_OP_constu` has a single unsigned LEB128 integer operand N. It pushes the value N with the generic type.

5. `DW_OP_consts`

   `DW_OP_consts` has a single signed LEB128 integer operand N. It pushes the value N with the generic type.

6. `DW_OP_constx`

   `DW_OP_constx` has a single unsigned LEB128 integer operand that represents a zero-based index into the `.debug_addr` section relative to the value of the `DW_AT_addr_base` attribute of the associated compilation unit. The value N in the `.debug_addr` section has the size of the generic type. It pushes the value N with the generic type.

   The `DW_OP_constx` operation is provided for constants that require link-time relocation but should not be interpreted by the consumer as a relocatable address (for example, offsets to thread-local storage).

9. `DW_OP_const_type`

   `DW_OP_const_type` has three operands. The first is an unsigned LEB128 integer that represents the offset of a debugging information entry D in the current compilation unit, that provides the type of the constant value. The second is a 1-byte unsigned integral constant S. The third is a block of bytes B, with a length equal to S.

   T is the bit size of the type D. The least significant T bits of B are interpreted as a value V of the type D. It pushes the value V with the type D.

   The DWARF is ill-formed if D is not a `DW_TAG_base_type` debugging information entry, or if T divided by 8 and rounded up to a multiple of 8 (the byte size) is not equal to S.

   While the size of the byte block B can be inferred from the type D definition, it is encoded explicitly into the operation so that the operation can be parsed easily without reference to the `.debug_info` section.

10. `DW_OP_LLVM_push_lane` New

    `DW_OP_LLVM_push_lane` pushes a value with the generic type that is the target architecture specific lane identifier of the thread of execution for which a user presented expression is currently being evaluated.

    For languages that are implemented using a SIMD or SIMT execution model, this is the lane number that corresponds to the source language thread of execution upon which the user is focused.

<h7>Arithmetic and Logical Operations</h7>

Note

This section is the same as DWARF Version 5 section 2.5.1.4.

<h7>Type Conversion Operations</h7>

Note

This section is the same as DWARF Version 5 section 2.5.1.6.

<h7>Special Value Operations</h7>

There are these special value operations currently defined:

1. `DW_OP_regval_type`

   `DW_OP_regval_type` has two operands. The first is an unsigned LEB128 integer that represents a register number R. The second is an unsigned LEB128 integer that represents the offset of a debugging information entry D in the current compilation unit, that provides the type of the register value.

   The contents of register R are interpreted as a value V of the type D. The value V is pushed on the stack with the type D.

   The DWARF is ill-formed if D is not a `DW_TAG_base_type` debugging information entry, or if the size of type D is not the same as the size of register R.

   Note

   Should DWARF allow the type D to be a different size to the size of the register R? Requiring them to be the same bit size avoids any issue of conversion as the bit contents of the register is simply interpreted as a value of the specified type. If a conversion is wanted it can be done explicitly using a `DW_OP_convert` operation.

   GDB has a per register hook that allows a target specific conversion on a register by register basis. It defaults to truncation of bigger registers, and to actually reading bytes from the next register (or reads out of bounds for the last register) for smaller registers. There are no GDB tests that read a register out of bounds (except an illegal hand written assembly test).

2. `DW_OP_deref`

   The `DW_OP_deref` operation pops one stack entry that must be a location description L.

   A value of the bit size of the generic type is retrieved from the location storage specified by L. The value V retrieved is pushed on the stack with the generic type.

   If any bit of the value is retrieved from the undefined location storage, or the offset of any bit exceeds the size of the location storage specified by L, then the DWARF expression is ill-formed.

   See Implicit Location Description Operations for special rules concerning implicit location descriptions created by the `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` and `DW_OP_LLVM_implicit_aspace_pointer` operations.

   If L, or the location description of any composite location description part that is a subcomponent of L, has more than one single location description, then any one of them can be selected as they are required to all have the same value. For any single location description SL, bits are retrieved from the associated storage location starting at the bit offset specified by SL. For a composite location description, the retrieved bits are the concatenation of the N bits from each composite location part PL, where N is limited to the size of PL.

3. `DW_OP_deref_size`

   `DW_OP_deref_size` has a single 1-byte unsigned integral constant that represents a byte result size S.

   It pops one stack entry that must be a location description L.

   T is the smaller of the generic type size and S scaled by 8 (the byte size). A value V of T bits is retrieved from the location storage specified by L. If V is smaller than the size of the generic type, V is zero-extended to the generic type size. V is pushed onto the stack with the generic type.

   The DWARF expression is ill-formed if any bit of the value is retrieved from the undefined location storage, or if the offset of any bit exceeds the size of the location storage specified by L.

   Note

   Truncating the value when S is larger than the generic type matches what GDB does. This allows the generic type size to not be a integral byte size. It does allow S to be arbitrarily large. Should S be restricted to the size of the generic type rounded up to a multiple of 8?

   See Implicit Location Description Operations for special rules concerning implicit location descriptions created by the `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` and `DW_OP_LLVM_implicit_aspace_pointer` operations.

4. `DW_OP_deref_type`

   `DW_OP_deref_type` has two operands. The first is a 1-byte unsigned integral constant S. The second is an unsigned LEB128 integer that represents the offset of a debugging information entry D in the current compilation unit, that provides the type of the result value.

   It pops one stack entry that must be a location description L. T is the bit size of the type D. A value V of T bits is retrieved from the location storage specified by L. V is pushed on the stack with the type D.

   The DWARF is ill-formed if D is not a `DW_TAG_base_type` debugging information entry, if T divided by 8 and rounded up to a multiple of 8 (the byte size) is not equal to S, if any bit of the value is retrieved from the undefined location storage, or if the offset of any bit exceeds the size of the location storage specified by L.

   See Implicit Location Description Operations for special rules concerning implicit location descriptions created by the `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` and `DW_OP_LLVM_implicit_aspace_pointer` operations.

   While the size of the pushed value V can be inferred from the type D definition, it is encoded explicitly into the operation so that the operation can be parsed easily without reference to the `.debug_info` section.

   Note

   It is unclear why the operand S is needed. Unlike `DW_OP_const_type`, the size is not needed for parsing. Any evaluation needs to get the base type to record with the value to know its encoding and bit size.

   This definition allows the base type to be a bit size since there seems no reason to restrict it.

5. `DW_OP_xderef` Deprecated

   `DW_OP_xderef` pops two stack entries. The first must be an integral type value that represents an address A. The second must be an integral type value that represents a target architecture specific address space identifier AS.

   The operation is equivalent to performing `DW_OP_swap; DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address; DW_OP_deref`. The value V retrieved is left on the stack with the generic type.

   This operation is deprecated as the `DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address` operation can be used and provides greater expressiveness.

6. `DW_OP_xderef_size` Deprecated

   `DW_OP_xderef_size` has a single 1-byte unsigned integral constant that represents a byte result size S.

   It pops two stack entries. The first must be an integral type value that represents an address A. The second must be an integral type value that represents a target architecture specific address space identifier AS.

   The operation is equivalent to performing `DW_OP_swap; DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address; DW_OP_deref_size S`. The zero-extended value V retrieved is left on the stack with the generic type.

   This operation is deprecated as the `DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address` operation can be used and provides greater expressiveness.

7. `DW_OP_xderef_type` Deprecated

   `DW_OP_xderef_type` has two operands. The first is a 1-byte unsigned integral constant S. The second operand is an unsigned LEB128 integer R that represents the offset of a debugging information entry D in the current compilation unit, that provides the type of the result value.

   It pops two stack entries. The first must be an integral type value that represents an address A. The second must be an integral type value that represents a target architecture specific address space identifier AS.

   The operation is equivalent to performing `DW_OP_swap; DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address; DW_OP_deref_type S R`. The value V retrieved is left on the stack with the type D.

   This operation is deprecated as the `DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address` operation can be used and provides greater expressiveness.

8. `DW_OP_entry_value` Deprecated

   `DW_OP_entry_value` pushes the value that the described location held upon entering the current subprogram.

   It has two operands. The first is an unsigned LEB128 integer S. The second is a block of bytes, with a length equal S, interpreted as a DWARF operation expression E.

   E is evaluated as if it had been evaluated upon entering the current subprogram with an empty initial stack.

   Note

   It is unclear what this means. What is the current program location and current frame that must be used? Does this require reverse execution so the register and memory state are as it was on entry to the current subprogram?

   The DWARF expression is ill-formed if the evaluation of E executes a `DW_OP_push_object_address` operation.

   If the result of E is a location description with one register location description (see Register Location Description Operations), `DW_OP_entry_value` pushes the value that register had upon entering the current subprogram. The value entry type is the target architecture register base type. If the register value is undefined or the register location description bit offset is not 0, then the DWARF expression is ill-formed.

   The register location description provides a more compact form for the case where the value was in a register on entry to the subprogram.

   If the result of E is a value V, `DW_OP_entry_value` pushes V on the stack.

   Otherwise, the DWARF expression is ill-formed.

   The values needed to evaluate `DW_OP_entry_value` could be obtained in several ways. The consumer could suspend execution on entry to the subprogram, record values needed by `DW_OP_entry_value` expressions within the subprogram, and then continue. When evaluating `DW_OP_entry_value`, the consumer would use these recorded values rather than the current values. Or, when evaluating `DW_OP_entry_value`, the consumer could virtually unwind using the Call Frame Information (see Call Frame Information) to recover register values that might have been clobbered since the subprogram entry point.

   The `DW_OP_entry_value` operation is deprecated as its main usage is provided by other means. DWARF Version 5 added the `DW_TAG_call_site_parameter` debugger information entry for call sites that has `DW_AT_call_value`, `DW_AT_call_data_location`, and `DW_AT_call_data_value` attributes that provide DWARF expressions to compute actual parameter values at the time of the call, and requires the producer to ensure the expressions are valid to evaluate even when virtually unwound. The `DW_OP_LLVM_call_frame_entry_reg` operation provides access to registers in the virtually unwound calling frame.

   Note

   It is unclear why this operation is defined this way. How would a consumer know what values have to be saved on entry to the subprogram? Does it have to parse every expression of every `DW_OP_entry_value` operation to capture all the possible results needed? Or does it have to implement reverse execution so it can evaluate the expression in the context of the entry of the subprogram so it can obtain the entry point register and memory values? Or does the compiler somehow instruct the consumer how to create the saved copies of the variables on entry?

   If the expression is simply using existing variables, then it is just a regular expression and no special operation is needed. If the main purpose is only to read the entry value of a register using CFI then it would be better to have an operation that explicitly does just that such as the proposed `DW_OP_LLVM_call_frame_entry_reg` operation.

   GDB only seems to implement `DW_OP_entry_value` when E is exactly `DW_OP_reg*` or `DW_OP_breg*; DW_OP_deref*`. It evaluates E in the context of the calling subprogram and the calling call site program location. But the wording suggests that is not the intention.

   Given these issues it is suggested `DW_OP_entry_value` is deprecated in favor of using the new facities that have well defined semantics and implementations.

###### Location Description Operations

This section describes the operations that push location descriptions on the stack.

<h7>General Location Description Operations</h7>

1. `DW_OP_LLVM_offset` New

   `DW_OP_LLVM_offset` pops two stack entries. The first must be an integral type value that represents a byte displacement B. The second must be a location description L.

   It adds the value of B scaled by 8 (the byte size) to the bit offset of each single location description SL of L, and pushes the updated L.

   If the updated bit offset of any SL is less than 0 or greater than or equal to the size of the location storage specified by SL, then the DWARF expression is ill-formed.

2. `DW_OP_LLVM_offset_uconst` New

   `DW_OP_LLVM_offset_uconst` has a single unsigned LEB128 integer operand that represents a byte displacement B.

   The operation is equivalent to performing `DW_OP_constu B; DW_OP_LLVM_offset`.

   This operation is supplied specifically to be able to encode more field displacements in two bytes than can be done with `DW_OP_lit*; DW_OP_LLVM_offset`.

   Note

   Should this be named `DW_OP_LLVM_offset_uconst` to match `DW_OP_plus_uconst`, or `DW_OP_LLVM_offset_constu` to match `DW_OP_constu`?

3. `DW_OP_LLVM_bit_offset` New

   `DW_OP_LLVM_bit_offset` pops two stack entries. The first must be an integral type value that represents a bit displacement B. The second must be a location description L.

   It adds the value of B to the bit offset of each single location description SL of L, and pushes the updated L.

   If the updated bit offset of any SL is less than 0 or greater than or equal to the size of the location storage specified by SL, then the DWARF expression is ill-formed.

4. `DW_OP_push_object_address`

   `DW_OP_push_object_address` pushes the location description L of the object currently being evaluated as part of evaluation of a user presented expression.

   This object may correspond to an independent variable described by its own debugging information entry or it may be a component of an array, structure, or class whose address has been dynamically determined by an earlier step during user expression evaluation.

   This operation provides explicit functionality (especially for arrays involving descriptions) that is analogous to the implicit push of the base location description of a structure prior to evaluation of a ``DW_AT_data_member_location`` to access a data member of a structure.

5. `DW_OP_LLVM_call_frame_entry_reg` New

   `DW_OP_LLVM_call_frame_entry_reg` has a single unsigned LEB128 integer operand that represents a target architecture register number R.

   It pushes a location description L that holds the value of register R on entry to the current subprogram as defined by the Call Frame Information (see Call Frame Information).

   If there is no Call Frame Information defined, then the default rules for the target architecture are used. If the register rule is undefined, then the undefined location description is pushed. If the register rule is same value, then a register location description for R is pushed.

<h7>Undefined Location Description Operations</h7>

The undefined location storage represents a piece or all of an object that is present in the source but not in the object code (perhaps due to optimization). Neither reading nor writing to the undefined location storage is meaningful.

An undefined location description specifies the undefined location storage. There is no concept of the size of the undefined location storage, nor of a bit offset for an undefined location description. The `DW_OP_LLVM_*offset` operations leave an undefined location description unchanged. The `DW_OP_*piece` operations can explicitly or implicitly specify an undefined location description, allowing any size and offset to be specified, and results in a part with all undefined bits.

1. `DW_OP_LLVM_undefined` New

   `DW_OP_LLVM_undefined` pushes a location description L that comprises one undefined location description SL.

<h7>Memory Location Description Operations</h7>

Each of the target architecture specific address spaces has a corresponding memory location storage that denotes the linear addressable memory of that address space. The size of each memory location storage corresponds to the range of the addresses in the corresponding address space.

It is target architecture defined how address space location storage maps to target architecture physical memory. For example, they may be independent memory, or more than one location storage may alias the same physical memory possibly at different offsets and with different interleaving. The mapping may also be dictated by the source language address classes.

A memory location description specifies a memory location storage. The bit offset corresponds to a bit position within a byte of the memory. Bits accessed using a memory location description, access the corresponding target architecture memory starting at the bit position within the byte specified by the bit offset.

A memory location description that has a bit offset that is a multiple of 8 (the byte size) is defined to be a byte address memory location description. It has a memory byte address A that is equal to the bit offset divided by 8.

A memory location description that does not have a bit offset that is a multiple of 8 (the byte size) is defined to be a bit field memory location description. It has a bit position B equal to the bit offset modulo 8, and a memory byte address A equal to the bit offset minus B that is then divided by 8.

The address space AS of a memory location description is defined to be the address space that corresponds to the memory location storage associated with the memory location description.

A location description that is comprised of one byte address memory location description SL is defined to be a memory byte address location description. It has a byte address equal to A and an address space equal to AS of the corresponding SL.

`DW_ASPACE_none` is defined as the target architecture default address space.

If a stack entry is required to be a location description, but it is a value V with the generic type, then it is implicitly converted to a location description L with one memory location description SL. SL specifies the memory location storage that corresponds to the target architecture default address space with a bit offset equal to V scaled by 8 (the byte size).

Note

If it is wanted to allow any integral type value to be implicitly converted to a memory location description in the target architecture default address space:

> If a stack entry is required to be a location description, but is a value V with an integral type, then it is implicitly converted to a location description L with a one memory location description SL. If the type size of V is less than the generic type size, then the value V is zero extended to the size of the generic type. The least significant generic type size bits are treated as a twos-complement unsigned value to be used as an address A. SL specifies memory location storage corresponding to the target architecture default address space with a bit offset equal to A scaled by 8 (the byte size).

The implicit conversion could also be defined as target architecture specific. For example, GDB checks if V is an integral type. If it is not it gives an error. Otherwise, GDB zero-extends V to 64 bits. If the GDB target defines a hook function, then it is called. The target specific hook function can modify the 64-bit value, possibly sign extending based on the original value type. Finally, GDB treats the 64-bit value V as a memory location address.

If a stack entry is required to be a location description, but it is an implicit pointer value IPV with the target architecture default address space, then it is implicitly converted to a location description with one single location description specified by IPV. See Implicit Location Description Operations.

Note

Is this rule required for DWARF Version 5 backwards compatibility? If not, it can be eliminated, and the producer can use `DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address`.

If a stack entry is required to be a value, but it is a location description L with one memory location description SL in the target architecture default address space with a bit offset B that is a multiple of 8, then it is implicitly converted to a value equal to B divided by 8 (the byte size) with the generic type.

1. `DW_OP_addr`

   `DW_OP_addr` has a single byte constant value operand, which has the size of the generic type, that represents an address A.

   It pushes a location description L with one memory location description SL on the stack. SL specifies the memory location storage corresponding to the target architecture default address space with a bit offset equal to A scaled by 8 (the byte size).

   If the DWARF is part of a code object, then A may need to be relocated. For example, in the ELF code object format, A must be adjusted by the difference between the ELF segment virtual address and the virtual address at which the segment is loaded.

2. `DW_OP_addrx`

   `DW_OP_addrx` has a single unsigned LEB128 integer operand that represents a zero-based index into the `.debug_addr` section relative to the value of the `DW_AT_addr_base` attribute of the associated compilation unit. The address value A in the `.debug_addr` section has the size of the generic type.

   It pushes a location description L with one memory location description SL on the stack. SL specifies the memory location storage corresponding to the target architecture default address space with a bit offset equal to A scaled by 8 (the byte size).

   If the DWARF is part of a code object, then A may need to be relocated. For example, in the ELF code object format, A must be adjusted by the difference between the ELF segment virtual address and the virtual address at which the segment is loaded.

3. `DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address` New

   `DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address` pops top two stack entries. The first must be an integral type value that represents a target architecture specific address space identifier AS. The second must be an integral type value that represents an address A.

   The address size S is defined as the address bit size of the target architecture specific address space that corresponds to AS.

   A is adjusted to S bits by zero extending if necessary, and then treating the least significant S bits as a twos-complement unsigned value A’.

   It pushes a location description L with one memory location description SL on the stack. SL specifies the memory location storage that corresponds to AS with a bit offset equal to A’ scaled by 8 (the byte size).

   The DWARF expression is ill-formed if AS is not one of the values defined by the target architecture specific `DW_ASPACE_*` values.

   See Implicit Location Description Operations for special rules concerning implicit pointer values produced by dereferencing implicit location descriptions created by the `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` and `DW_OP_LLVM_implicit_aspace_pointer` operations.

4. `DW_OP_form_tls_address`

   `DW_OP_form_tls_address` pops one stack entry that must be an integral type value and treats it as a thread-local storage address T.

   It pushes a location description L with one memory location description SL on the stack. SL is the target architecture specific memory location description that corresponds to the thread-local storage address T.

   The meaning of the thread-local storage address T is defined by the run-time environment. If the run-time environment supports multiple thread-local storage blocks for a single thread, then the block corresponding to the executable or shared library containing this DWARF expression is used.

   Some implementations of C, C++, Fortran, and other languages support a thread-local storage class. Variables with this storage class have distinct values and addresses in distinct threads, much as automatic variables have distinct values and addresses in each subprogram invocation. Typically, there is a single block of storage containing all thread-local variables declared in the main executable, and a separate block for the variables declared in each shared library. Each thread-local variable can then be accessed in its block using an identifier. This identifier is typically a byte offset into the block and pushed onto the DWARF stack by one of the `DW_OP_const*` operations prior to the `DW_OP_form_tls_address` operation. Computing the address of the appropriate block can be complex (in some cases, the compiler emits a function call to do it), and difficult to describe using ordinary DWARF location descriptions. Instead of forcing complex thread-local storage calculations into the DWARF expressions, the `DW_OP_form_tls_address` allows the consumer to perform the computation based on the target architecture specific run-time environment.

5. `DW_OP_call_frame_cfa`

   `DW_OP_call_frame_cfa` pushes the location description L of the Canonical Frame Address (CFA) of the current subprogram, obtained from the Call Frame Information on the stack. See Call Frame Information.

   Although the value of the `DW_AT_frame_base` attribute of the debugger information entry corresponding to the current subprogram can be computed using a location list expression, in some cases this would require an extensive location list because the values of the registers used in computing the CFA change during a subprogram execution. If the Call Frame Information is present, then it already encodes such changes, and it is space efficient to reference that using the `DW_OP_call_frame_cfa` operation.

6. `DW_OP_fbreg`

   `DW_OP_fbreg` has a single signed LEB128 integer operand that represents a byte displacement B.

   The location description L for the frame base of the current subprogram is obtained from the `DW_AT_frame_base` attribute of the debugger information entry corresponding to the current subprogram as described in Debugging Information Entry Attributes.

   The location description L is updated as if the `DW_OP_LLVM_offset_uconst B` operation was applied. The updated L is pushed on the stack.

7. `DW_OP_breg0`, `DW_OP_breg1`, …, `DW_OP_breg31`

   The `DW_OP_breg<N>` operations encode the numbers of up to 32 registers, numbered from 0 through 31, inclusive. The register number R corresponds to the N in the operation name.

   They have a single signed LEB128 integer operand that represents a byte displacement B.

   The address space identifier AS is defined as the one corresponding to the target architecture specific default address space.

   The address size S is defined as the address bit size of the target architecture specific address space corresponding to AS.

   The contents of the register specified by R are retrieved as a twos-complement unsigned value and zero extended to S bits. B is added and the least significant S bits are treated as a twos-complement unsigned value to be used as an address A.

   They push a location description L comprising one memory location description LS on the stack. LS specifies the memory location storage that corresponds to AS with a bit offset equal to A scaled by 8 (the byte size).

8. `DW_OP_bregx`

   `DW_OP_bregx` has two operands. The first is an unsigned LEB128 integer that represents a register number R. The second is a signed LEB128 integer that represents a byte displacement B.

   The action is the same as for `DW_OP_breg<N>` except that R is used as the register number and B is used as the byte displacement.

9. `DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_bregx` New

   `DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_bregx` has two operands. The first is an unsigned LEB128 integer that represents a register number R. The second is a signed LEB128 integer that represents a byte displacement B. It pops one stack entry that is required to be an integral type value that represents a target architecture specific address space identifier AS.

   The action is the same as for `DW_OP_breg<N>` except that R is used as the register number, B is used as the byte displacement, and AS is used as the address space identifier.

   The DWARF expression is ill-formed if AS is not one of the values defined by the target architecture specific `DW_ASPACE_*` values.

   Note

   Could also consider adding `DW_OP_aspace_breg0, DW_OP_aspace_breg1, ..., DW_OP_aspace_bref31` which would save encoding size.

<h7>Register Location Description Operations</h7>

There is a register location storage that corresponds to each of the target architecture registers. The size of each register location storage corresponds to the size of the corresponding target architecture register.

A register location description specifies a register location storage. The bit offset corresponds to a bit position within the register. Bits accessed using a register location description access the corresponding target architecture register starting at the specified bit offset.

1. `DW_OP_reg0`, `DW_OP_reg1`, …, `DW_OP_reg31`

   `DW_OP_reg<N>` operations encode the numbers of up to 32 registers, numbered from 0 through 31, inclusive. The target architecture register number R corresponds to the N in the operation name.

   They push a location description L that specifies one register location description SL on the stack. SL specifies the register location storage that corresponds to R with a bit offset of 0.

2. `DW_OP_regx`

   `DW_OP_regx` has a single unsigned LEB128 integer operand that represents a target architecture register number R.

   It pushes a location description L that specifies one register location description SL on the stack. SL specifies the register location storage that corresponds to R with a bit offset of 0.

These operations obtain a register location. To fetch the contents of a register, it is necessary to use `DW_OP_regval_type`, use one of the `DW_OP_breg*` register-based addressing operations, or use `DW_OP_deref*` on a register location description.

<h7>Implicit Location Description Operations</h7>

Implicit location storage represents a piece or all of an object which has no actual location in the program but whose contents are nonetheless known, either as a constant or can be computed from other locations and values in the program.

An implicit location description specifies an implicit location storage. The bit offset corresponds to a bit position within the implicit location storage. Bits accessed using an implicit location description, access the corresponding implicit storage value starting at the bit offset.

1. `DW_OP_implicit_value`

   `DW_OP_implicit_value` has two operands. The first is an unsigned LEB128 integer that represents a byte size S. The second is a block of bytes with a length equal to S treated as a literal value V.

   An implicit location storage LS is created with the literal value V and a size of S.

   It pushes location description L with one implicit location description SL on the stack. SL specifies LS with a bit offset of 0.

2. `DW_OP_stack_value`

   `DW_OP_stack_value` pops one stack entry that must be a value V.

   An implicit location storage LS is created with the literal value V and a size equal to V’s base type size.

   It pushes a location description L with one implicit location description SL on the stack. SL specifies LS with a bit offset of 0.

   The `DW_OP_stack_value` operation specifies that the object does not exist in memory, but its value is nonetheless known. In this form, the location description specifies the actual value of the object, rather than specifying the memory or register storage that holds the value.

   See Implicit Location Description Operations for special rules concerning implicit pointer values produced by dereferencing implicit location descriptions created by the `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` and `DW_OP_LLVM_implicit_aspace_pointer` operations.

   Note

   Since location descriptions are allowed on the stack, the `DW_OP_stack_value` operation no longer terminates the DWARF operation expression execution as in DWARF Version 5.

3. `DW_OP_implicit_pointer`

   An optimizing compiler may eliminate a pointer, while still retaining the value that the pointer addressed. `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` allows a producer to describe this value.

   `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` specifies an object is a pointer to the target architecture default address space that cannot be represented as a real pointer, even though the value it would point to can be described. In this form, the location description specifies a debugging information entry that represents the actual location description of the object to which the pointer would point. Thus, a consumer of the debug information would be able to access the dereferenced pointer, even when it cannot access the pointer itself.

   `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` has two operands. The first is a 4-byte unsigned value in the 32-bit DWARF format, or an 8-byte unsigned value in the 64-bit DWARF format, that represents a debugging information entry reference R. The second is a signed LEB128 integer that represents a byte displacement B.

   R is used as the offset of a debugging information entry D in a `.debug_info` section, which may be contained in an executable or shared object file other than that containing the operation. For references from one executable or shared object file to another, the relocation must be performed by the consumer.

   The first operand interpretation is exactly like that for `DW_FORM_ref_addr`.

   The address space identifier AS is defined as the one corresponding to the target architecture specific default address space.

   The address size S is defined as the address bit size of the target architecture specific address space corresponding to AS.

   An implicit location storage LS is created with the debugging information entry D, address space AS, and size of S.

   It pushes a location description L that comprises one implicit location description SL on the stack. SL specifies LS with a bit offset of 0.

   If a `DW_OP_deref*` operation pops a location description L’, and retrieves S bits where both:

   1. All retrieved bits come from an implicit location description that refers to an implicit location storage that is the same as LS.

      Note that all bits do not have to come from the same implicit location description, as L’ may involve composite location descriptors.

   2. The bits come from consecutive ascending offsets within their respective implicit location storage.

   These rules are equivalent to retrieving the complete contents of LS.

   Then the value V pushed by the `DW_OP_deref*` operation is an implicit pointer value IPV with a target architecture specific address space of AS, a debugging information entry of D, and a base type of T. If AS is the target architecture default address space, then T is the generic type. Otherwise, T is a target architecture specific integral type with a bit size equal to S.

   Otherwise, if a `DW_OP_deref*` operation is applied to a location description such that some retrieved bits come from an implicit location storage that is the same as LS, then the DWARF expression is ill-formed.

   If IPV is either implicitly converted to a location description (only done if AS is the target architecture default address space) or used by `DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address` (only done if the address space specified is AS), then the resulting location description RL is:

   - If D has a `DW_AT_location` attribute, the DWARF expression E from the `DW_AT_location` attribute is evaluated as a location description. The current subprogram and current program location of the evaluation context that is accessing IPV is used for the evaluation context of E, together with an empty initial stack. RL is the expression result.

   - If D has a `DW_AT_const_value` attribute, then an implicit location storage RLS is created from the `DW_AT_const_value` attribute’s value with a size matching the size of the `DW_AT_const_value` attribute’s value. RL comprises one implicit location description SRL. SRL specifies RLS with a bit offset of 0.

     Note

     If using `DW_AT_const_value` for variables and formal parameters is deprecated and instead `DW_AT_location` is used with an implicit location description, then this rule would not be required.

   - Otherwise the DWARF expression is ill-formed.

   The bit offset of RL is updated as if the `DW_OP_LLVM_offset_uconst B` operation was applied.

   If a `DW_OP_stack_value` operation pops a value that is the same as IPV, then it pushes a location description that is the same as L.

   The DWARF expression is ill-formed if it accesses LS or IPV in any other manner.

   The restrictions on how an implicit pointer location description created by `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` and `DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_implicit_pointer` can be used are to simplify the DWARF consumer. Similarly, for an implicit pointer value created by `DW_OP_deref*` and `DW_OP_stack_value`.*

4. `DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_implicit_pointer` New

   `DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_implicit_pointer` has two operands that are the same as for `DW_OP_implicit_pointer`.

   It pops one stack entry that must be an integral type value that represents a target architecture specific address space identifier AS.

   The location description L that is pushed on the stack is the same as for `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` except that the address space identifier used is AS.

   The DWARF expression is ill-formed if AS is not one of the values defined by the target architecture specific `DW_ASPACE_*` values.

Typically a `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` or `DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_implicit_pointer` operation is used in a DWARF expression E1 of a `DW_TAG_variable` or `DW_TAG_formal_parameter` debugging information entry D1‘s `DW_AT_location` attribute. The debugging information entry referenced by the `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` or `DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_implicit_pointer` operations is typically itself a `DW_TAG_variable` or `DW_TAG_formal_parameter` debugging information entry D2 whose `DW_AT_location` attribute gives a second DWARF expression E2.

D1 and E1 are describing the location of a pointer type object. D2 and E2 are describing the location of the object pointed to by that pointer object.

However, D2 may be any debugging information entry that contains a `DW_AT_location` or `DW_AT_const_value` attribute (for example, `DW_TAG_dwarf_procedure`). By using E2, a consumer can reconstruct the value of the object when asked to dereference the pointer described by E1 which contains the `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` or `DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_implicit_pointer` operation.

<h7>Composite Location Description Operations</h7>

A composite location storage represents an object or value which may be contained in part of another location storage or contained in parts of more than one location storage.

Each part has a part location description L and a part bit size S. L can have one or more single location descriptions SL. If there are more than one SL then that indicates that part is located in more than one place. The bits of each place of the part comprise S contiguous bits from the location storage LS specified by SL starting at the bit offset specified by SL. All the bits must be within the size of LS or the DWARF expression is ill-formed.

A composite location storage can have zero or more parts. The parts are contiguous such that the zero-based location storage bit index will range over each part with no gaps between them. Therefore, the size of a composite location storage is the sum of the size of its parts. The DWARF expression is ill-formed if the size of the contiguous location storage is larger than the size of the memory location storage corresponding to the largest target architecture specific address space.

A composite location description specifies a composite location storage. The bit offset corresponds to a bit position within the composite location storage.

There are operations that create a composite location storage.

There are other operations that allow a composite location storage to be incrementally created. Each part is created by a separate operation. There may be one or more operations to create the final composite location storage. A series of such operations describes the parts of the composite location storage that are in the order that the associated part operations are executed.

To support incremental creation, a composite location storage can be in an incomplete state. When an incremental operation operates on an incomplete composite location storage, it adds a new part, otherwise it creates a new composite location storage. The `DW_OP_LLVM_piece_end` operation explicitly makes an incomplete composite location storage complete.

A composite location description that specifies a composite location storage that is incomplete is termed an incomplete composite location description. A composite location description that specifies a composite location storage that is complete is termed a complete composite location description.

If the top stack entry is a location description that has one incomplete composite location description SL after the execution of an operation expression has completed, SL is converted to a complete composite location description.

Note that this conversion does not happen after the completion of an operation expression that is evaluated on the same stack by the `DW_OP_call*` operations. Such executions are not a separate evaluation of an operation expression, but rather the continued evaluation of the same operation expression that contains the `DW_OP_call*` operation.

If a stack entry is required to be a location description L, but L has an incomplete composite location description, then the DWARF expression is ill-formed. The exception is for the operations involved in incrementally creating a composite location description as described below.

Note that a DWARF operation expression may arbitrarily compose composite location descriptions from any other location description, including those that have multiple single location descriptions, and those that have composite location descriptions.

The incremental composite location description operations are defined to be compatible with the definitions in DWARF Version 5.

1. `DW_OP_piece`

   `DW_OP_piece` has a single unsigned LEB128 integer that represents a byte size S.

   The action is based on the context:

   - If the stack is empty, then a location description L comprised of one incomplete composite location description SL is pushed on the stack.

     An incomplete composite location storage LS is created with a single part P. P specifies a location description PL and has a bit size of S scaled by 8 (the byte size). PL is comprised of one undefined location description PSL.

     SL specifies LS with a bit offset of 0.

   - Otherwise, if the top stack entry is a location description L comprised of one incomplete composite location description SL, then the incomplete composite location storage LS that SL specifies is updated to append a new part P. P specifies a location description PL and has a bit size of S scaled by 8 (the byte size). PL is comprised of one undefined location description PSL. L is left on the stack.

   - Otherwise, if the top stack entry is a location description or can be converted to one, then it is popped and treated as a part location description PL. Then:

     - If the top stack entry (after popping PL) is a location description L comprised of one incomplete composite location description SL, then the incomplete composite location storage LS that SL specifies is updated to append a new part P. P specifies the location description PL and has a bit size of S scaled by 8 (the byte size). L is left on the stack.

     - Otherwise, a location description L comprised of one incomplete composite location description SL is pushed on the stack.

       An incomplete composite location storage LS is created with a single part P. P specifies the location description PL and has a bit size of S scaled by 8 (the byte size).

       SL specifies LS with a bit offset of 0.

   - Otherwise, the DWARF expression is ill-formed

   Many compilers store a single variable in sets of registers or store a variable partially in memory and partially in registers. `DW_OP_piece` provides a way of describing where a part of a variable is located.

   If a non-0 byte displacement is required, the `DW_OP_LLVM_offset` operation can be used to update the location description before using it as the part location description of a `DW_OP_piece` operation.

   The evaluation rules for the `DW_OP_piece` operation allow it to be compatible with the DWARF Version 5 definition.

   Note

   Since this proposal allows location descriptions to be entries on the stack, a simpler operation to create composite location descriptions. For example, just one operation that specifies how many parts, and pops pairs of stack entries for the part size and location description. Not only would this be a simpler operation and avoid the complexities of incomplete composite location descriptions, but it may also have a smaller encoding in practice. However, the desire for compatibility with DWARF Version 5 is likely a stronger consideration.

2. `DW_OP_bit_piece`

   `DW_OP_bit_piece` has two operands. The first is an unsigned LEB128 integer that represents the part bit size S. The second is an unsigned LEB128 integer that represents a bit displacement B.

   The action is the same as for `DW_OP_piece` except that any part created has the bit size S, and the location description PL of any created part is updated as if the `DW_OP_constu B; DW_OP_LLVM_bit_offset` operations were applied.

   `DW_OP_bit_piece` is used instead of `DW_OP_piece` when the piece to be assembled is not byte-sized or is not at the start of the part location description.

   If a computed bit displacement is required, the `DW_OP_LLVM_bit_offset` operation can be used to update the location description before using it as the part location description of a `DW_OP_bit_piece` operation.

   Note

   The bit offset operand is not needed as `DW_OP_LLVM_bit_offset` can be used on the part’s location description.

3. `DW_OP_LLVM_piece_end` New

   If the top stack entry is not a location description L comprised of one incomplete composite location description SL, then the DWARF expression is ill-formed.

   Otherwise, the incomplete composite location storage LS specified by SL is updated to be a complete composite location description with the same parts.

4. `DW_OP_LLVM_extend` New

   `DW_OP_LLVM_extend` has two operands. The first is an unsigned LEB128 integer that represents the element bit size S. The second is an unsigned LEB128 integer that represents a count C.

   It pops one stack entry that must be a location description and is treated as the part location description PL.

   A location description L comprised of one complete composite location description SL is pushed on the stack.

   A complete composite location storage LS is created with C identical parts P. Each P specifies PL and has a bit size of S.

   SL specifies LS with a bit offset of 0.

   The DWARF expression is ill-formed if the element bit size or count are 0.

5. `DW_OP_LLVM_select_bit_piece` New

   `DW_OP_LLVM_select_bit_piece` has two operands. The first is an unsigned LEB128 integer that represents the element bit size S. The second is an unsigned LEB128 integer that represents a count C.

   It pops three stack entries. The first must be an integral type value that represents a bit mask value M. The second must be a location description that represents the one-location description L1. The third must be a location description that represents the zero-location description L0.

   A complete composite location storage LS is created with C parts PN ordered in ascending N from 0 to C-1 inclusive. Each PN specifies location description PLN and has a bit size of S.

   PLN is as if the `DW_OP_LLVM_bit_offset N*S` operation was applied to PLXN.

   PLXN is the same as L0 if the Nth least significant bit of M is a zero, otherwise it is the same as L1.

   A location description L comprised of one complete composite location description SL is pushed on the stack. SL specifies LS with a bit offset of 0.

   The DWARF expression is ill-formed if S or C are 0, or if the bit size of M is less than C.

##### DWARF Location List Expressions

To meet the needs of recent computer architectures and optimization techniques, debugging information must be able to describe the location of an object whose location changes over the object’s lifetime, and may reside at multiple locations during parts of an object’s lifetime. Location list expressions are used in place of operation expressions whenever the object whose location is being described has these requirements.

A location list expression consists of a series of location list entries. Each location list entry is one of the following kinds:

Bounded location description

> This kind of location list entry provides an operation expression that evaluates to the location description of an object that is valid over a lifetime bounded by a starting and ending address. The starting address is the lowest address of the address range over which the location is valid. The ending address is the address of the first location past the highest address of the address range.

> The location list entry matches when the current program location is within the given range.

> There are several kinds of bounded location description entries which differ in the way that they specify the starting and ending addresses.

Default location description

> This kind of location list entry provides an operation expression that evaluates to the location description of an object that is valid when no bounded location description entry applies.

> The location list entry matches when the current program location is not within the range of any bounded location description entry.

Base address

> This kind of location list entry provides an address to be used as the base address for beginning and ending address offsets given in certain kinds of bounded location description entries. The applicable base address of a bounded location description entry is the address specified by the closest preceding base address entry in the same location list. If there is no preceding base address entry, then the applicable base address defaults to the base address of the compilation unit (see DWARF Version 5 section 3.1.1).

> In the case of a compilation unit where all of the machine code is contained in a single contiguous section, no base address entry is needed.

End-of-list

> This kind of location list entry marks the end of the location list expression.

The address ranges defined by the bounded location description entries of a location list expression may overlap. When they do, they describe a situation in which an object exists simultaneously in more than one place.

If all of the address ranges in a given location list expression do not collectively cover the entire range over which the object in question is defined, and there is no following default location description entry, it is assumed that the object is not available for the portion of the range that is not covered.

The operation expression of each matching location list entry is evaluated as a location description and its result is returned as the result of the location list entry. The operation expression is evaluated with the same context as the location list expression, including the same current frame, current program location, and initial stack.

The result of the evaluation of a DWARF location list expression is a location description that is comprised of the union of the single location descriptions of the location description result of each matching location list entry. If there are no matching location list entries, then the result is a location description that comprises one undefined location description.

A location list expression can only be used as the value of a debugger information entry attribute that is encoded using class `loclist` or `loclistsptr` (see DWARF Version 5 section 7.5.5). The value of the attribute provides an index into a separate object file section called `.debug_loclists` or `.debug_loclists.dwo` (for split DWARF object files) that contains the location list entries.

A `DW_OP_call*` and `DW_OP_implicit_pointer` operation can be used to specify a debugger information entry attribute that has a location list expression. Several debugger information entry attributes allow DWARF expressions that are evaluated with an initial stack that includes a location description that may originate from the evaluation of a location list expression.

This location list representation, the `loclist` and `loclistsptr` class, and the related `DW_AT_loclists_base` attribute are new in DWARF Version 5. Together they eliminate most, or all of the code object relocations previously needed for location list expressions.

Note

The rest of this section is the same as DWARF Version 5 section 2.6.2.

#### Segmented Addresses

Note

This augments DWARF Version 5 section 2.12.

DWARF address classes are used for source languages that have the concept of memory spaces. They are used in the `DW_AT_address_class` attribute for pointer type, reference type, subprogram, and subprogram type debugger information entries.

Each DWARF address class is conceptually a separate source language memory space with its own lifetime and aliasing rules. DWARF address classes are used to specify the source language memory spaces that pointer type and reference type values refer, and to specify the source language memory space in which variables are allocated.

The set of currently defined source language DWARF address classes, together with source language mappings, is given in Address class.

Vendor defined source language address classes may be defined using codes in the range `DW_ADDR_LLVM_lo_user` to `DW_ADDR_LLVM_hi_user`.

Address class
Address Class Name | Meaning | C/C++ | OpenCL | CUDA/HIP
--- | --- | --- | --- | ---
`DW_ADDR_none` | generic | default | generic | default
`DW_ADDR_LLVM_global` | global |  | global |
`DW_ADDR_LLVM_constant` | constant |  | constant | constant
`DW_ADDR_LLVM_group` | thread-group |  | local | shared
`DW_ADDR_LLVM_private` | thread |  | private |
`DW_ADDR_LLVM_lo_user` |  |  |  |
`DW_ADDR_LLVM_hi_user` |  |  |  |

DWARF address spaces correspond to target architecture specific linear addressable memory areas. They are used in DWARF expression location descriptions to describe in which target architecture specific memory area data resides.

Target architecture specific DWARF address spaces may correspond to hardware supported facilities such as memory utilizing base address registers, scratchpad memory, and memory with special interleaving. The size of addresses in these address spaces may vary. Their access and allocation may be hardware managed with each thread or group of threads having access to independent storage. For these reasons they may have properties that do not allow them to be viewed as part of the unified global virtual address space accessible by all threads.

It is target architecture specific whether multiple DWARF address spaces are supported and how source language DWARF address classes map to target architecture specific DWARF address spaces. A target architecture may map multiple source language DWARF address classes to the same target architecture specific DWARF address class. Optimization may determine that variable lifetime and access pattern allows them to be allocated in faster scratchpad memory represented by a different DWARF address space.

Although DWARF address space identifiers are target architecture specific, `DW_ASPACE_none` is a common address space supported by all target architectures.

DWARF address space identifiers are used by:

- The DWARF expession operations: `DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_bregx`, `DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address`, `DW_OP_LLVM_implicit_aspace_pointer`, and `DW_OP_xderef*`.

- The CFI instructions: `DW_CFA_def_aspace_cfa` and `DW_CFA_def_aspace_cfa_sf`.

Note

With the definition of DWARF address classes and DWARF address spaces in this proposal, DWARF Version 5 table 2.7 needs to be updated. It seems it is an example of DWARF address spaces and not DWARF address classes.

Note

With the expanded support for DWARF address spaces in this proposal, it may be worth examining if DWARF segments can be eliminated and DWARF address spaces used instead.

That may involve extending DWARF address spaces to also be used to specify code locations. In target architectures that use different memory areas for code and data this would seem a natural use for DWARF address spaces. This would allow DWARF expression location descriptions to be used to describe the location of subprograms and entry points that are used in expressions involving subprogram pointer type values.

Currently, DWARF expressions assume data and code resides in the same default DWARF address space, and only the address ranges in DWARF location list entries and in the `.debug_aranges` section for accelerated access for addresses allow DWARF segments to be used to distinguish.

Note

Currently, DWARF defines address class values as being target architecture specific. It is unclear how language specific memory spaces are intended to be represented in DWARF using these.

For example, OpenCL defines memory spaces (called address spaces in OpenCL) for `global`, `local`, `constant`, and `private`. These are part of the type system and are modifiers to pointer types. In addition, OpenCL defines `generic` pointers that can reference either the `global`, `local`, or `private` memory spaces. To support the OpenCL language the debugger would want to support casting pointers between the `generic` and other memory spaces, querying what memory space a `generic` pointer value is currently referencing, and possibly using pointer casting to form an address for a specific memory space out of an integral value.

The method to use to dereference a pointer type or reference type value is defined in DWARF expressions using `DW_OP_xderef*` which uses a target architecture specific address space.

DWARF defines the `DW_AT_address_class` attribute on pointer type and reference type debugger information entries. It specifies the method to use to dereference them. Why is the value of this not the same as the address space value used in `DW_OP_xderef*`? In both cases it is target architecture specific and the architecture presumably will use the same set of methods to dereference pointers in both cases.

Since `DW_AT_address_class` uses a target architecture specific value, it cannot in general capture the source language memory space type modifier concept. On some architectures all source language memory space modifiers may actually use the same method for dereferencing pointers.

One possibility is for DWARF to add an `DW_TAG_LLVM_address_class_type` debugger information entry type modifier that can be applied to a pointer type and reference type. The `DW_AT_address_class` attribute could be re-defined to not be target architecture specific and instead define generalized language values (as is proposed above for DWARF address classes in the table Address class) that will support OpenCL and other languages using memory spaces. The `DW_AT_address_class` attribute could be defined to not be applied to pointer types or reference types, but instead only to the new `DW_TAG_LLVM_address_class_type` type modifier debugger information entry.

If a pointer type or reference type is not modified by `DW_TAG_LLVM_address_class_type` or if `DW_TAG_LLVM_address_class_type` has no `DW_AT_address_class` attribute, then the pointer type or reference type would be defined to use the `DW_ADDR_none` address class as currently. Since modifiers can be chained, it would need to be defined if multiple `DW_TAG_LLVM_address_class_type` modifiers were legal, and if so if the outermost one is the one that takes precedence.

A target architecture implementation that supports multiple address spaces would need to map `DW_ADDR_none` appropriately to support CUDA-like languages that have no address classes in the type system but do support variable allocation in address classes. Such variable allocation would result in the variable’s location description needing an address space.

The approach proposed in Address class is to define the default `DW_ADDR_none` to be the generic address class and not the global address class. This matches how CLANG and LLVM have added support for CUDA-like languages on top of existing C++ language support. This allows all addresses to be generic by default which matches CUDA-like languages.

An alternative approach is to define `DW_ADDR_none` as being the global address class and then change `DW_ADDR_LLVM_global` to `DW_ADDR_LLVM_generic`. This would match the reality that languages that do not support multiple memory spaces only have one default global memory space. Generally, in these languages if they expose that the target architecture supports multiple address spaces, the default one is still the global memory space. Then a language that does support multiple memory spaces has to explicitly indicate which pointers have the added ability to reference more than the global memory space. However, compilers generating DWARF for CUDA-like languages would then have to define every CUDA-like language pointer type or reference type using `DW_TAG_LLVM_address_class_type` with a `DW_AT_address_class` attribute of `DW_ADDR_LLVM_generic` to match the language semantics.

A new `DW_AT_LLVM_address_space` attribute could be defined that can be applied to pointer type, reference type, subprogram, and subprogram type to describe how objects having the given type are dereferenced or called (the role that `DW_AT_address_class` currently provides). The values of `DW_AT_address_space` would be target architecture specific and the same as used in `DW_OP_xderef*`.

#### Debugging Information Entry Attributes

Note

This section provides changes to existing debugger information entry attributes and defines attributes added by the proposal. These would be incorporated into the appropriate DWARF Version 5 chapter 2 sections.

1. `DW_AT_location`

   Any debugging information entry describing a data object (which includes variables and parameters) or common blocks may have a `DW_AT_location` attribute, whose value is a DWARF expression E.

   The result of the attribute is obtained by evaluating E as a location description in the context of the current subprogram, current program location, and with an empty initial stack. See DWARF Expressions.

   See Control Flow Operations for special evaluation rules used by the `DW_OP_call*` operations.

   Note

   Delete the description of how the `DW_OP_call*` operations evaluate a `DW_AT_location` attribute as that is now described in the operations.

   Note

   See the discussion about the `DW_AT_location` attribute in the `DW_OP_call*` operation. Having each attribute only have a single purpose and single execution semantics seems desirable. It makes it easier for the consumer that no longer have to track the context. It makes it easier for the producer as it can rely on a single semantics for each attribute.

   For that reason, limiting the `DW_AT_location` attribute to only supporting evaluating the location description of an object, and using a different attribute and encoding class for the evaluation of DWARF expression procedures on the same operation expression stack seems desirable.

2. `DW_AT_const_value`

   Note

   Could deprecate using the `DW_AT_const_value` attribute for `DW_TAG_variable` or `DW_TAG_formal_parameter` debugger information entries that have been optimized to a constant. Instead, `DW_AT_location` could be used with a DWARF expression that produces an implicit location description now that any location description can be used within a DWARF expression. This allows the `DW_OP_call*` operations to be used to push the location description of any variable regardless of how it is optimized.

3. `DW_AT_frame_base`

   A `DW_TAG_subprogram` or `DW_TAG_entry_point` debugger information entry may have a `DW_AT_frame_base` attribute, whose value is a DWARF expression E.

   The result of the attribute is obtained by evaluating E as a location description in the context of the current subprogram, current program location, and with an empty initial stack.

   The DWARF is ill-formed if E contains an `DW_OP_fbreg` operation, or the resulting location description L is not comprised of one single location description SL.

   If SL a register location description for register R, then L is replaced with the result of evaluating a `DW_OP_bregx R, 0` operation. This computes the frame base memory location description in the target architecture default address space.

   This allows the more compact `DW_OPreg*` to be used instead of `DW_OP_breg* 0`.

   Note

   This rule could be removed and require the producer to create the required location description directly using `DW_OP_call_frame_cfa`, `DW_OP_breg*`, or `DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_bregx`. This would also then allow a target to implement the call frames within a large register.

   Otherwise, the DWARF is ill-formed if SL is not a memory location description in any of the target architecture specific address spaces.

   The resulting L is the frame base for the subprogram or entry point.

   Typically, E will use the `DW_OP_call_frame_cfa` operation or be a stack pointer register plus or minus some offset.

4. `DW_AT_data_member_location`

   For a `DW_AT_data_member_location` attribute there are two cases:

   1. If the attribute is an integer constant B, it provides the offset in bytes from the beginning of the containing entity.

      The result of the attribute is obtained by evaluating a `DW_OP_LLVM_offset B` operation with an initial stack comprising the location description of the beginning of the containing entity. The result of the evaluation is the location description of the base of the member entry.

      If the beginning of the containing entity is not byte aligned, then the beginning of the member entry has the same bit displacement within a byte.

   2. Otherwise, the attribute must be a DWARF expression E which is evaluated with a context of the current frame, current program location, and an initial stack comprising the location description of the beginning of the containing entity. The result of the evaluation is the location description of the base of the member entry.

   Note

   The beginning of the containing entity can now be any location description, including those with more than one single location description, and those with single location descriptions that are of any kind and have any bit offset.

5. `DW_AT_use_location`

   The `DW_TAG_ptr_to_member_type` debugging information entry has a `DW_AT_use_location` attribute whose value is a DWARF expression E. It is used to compute the location description of the member of the class to which the pointer to member entry points.

   The method used to find the location description of a given member of a class, structure, or union is common to any instance of that class, structure, or union and to any instance of the pointer to member type. The method is thus associated with the pointer to member type, rather than with each object that has a pointer to member type.

   The `DW_AT_use_location` DWARF expression is used in conjunction with the location description for a particular object of the given pointer to member type and for a particular structure or class instance.

   The result of the attribute is obtained by evaluating E as a location description with the context of the current subprogram, current program location, and an initial stack comprising two entries. The first entry is the value of the pointer to member object itself. The second entry is the location description of the base of the entire class, structure, or union instance containing the member whose location is being calculated.

6. `DW_AT_data_location`

   The `DW_AT_data_location` attribute may be used with any type that provides one or more levels of hidden indirection and/or run-time parameters in its representation. Its value is a DWARF operation expression E which computes the location description of the data for an object. When this attribute is omitted, the location description of the data is the same as the location description of the object.

   The result of the attribute is obtained by evaluating E as a location description with the context of the current subprogram, current program location, and an empty initial stack.

   E will typically involve an operation expression that begins with a `DW_OP_push_object_address` operation which loads the location description of the object which can then serve as a description in subsequent calculation.

   Note

   Since `DW_AT_data_member_location`, `DW_AT_use_location`, and `DW_AT_vtable_elem_location` allow both operation expressions and location list expressions, why does `DW_AT_data_location` not allow both? In all cases they apply to data objects so less likely that optimization would cause different operation expressions for different program location ranges. But if supporting for some then should be for all.

   It seems odd this attribute is not the same as `DW_AT_data_member_location` in having an initial stack with the location description of the object since the expression has to need it.

7. `DW_AT_vtable_elem_location`

   An entry for a virtual function also has a `DW_AT_vtable_elem_location` attribute whose value is a DWARF expression E.

   The result of the attribute is obtained by evaluating E as a location description with the context of the current subprogram, current program location, and an initial stack comprising the location description of the object of the enclosing type.

   The resulting location description is the slot for the function within the virtual function table for the enclosing class.

8. `DW_AT_static_link`

   If a `DW_TAG_subprogram` or `DW_TAG_entry_point` debugger information entry is lexically nested, it may have a `DW_AT_static_link` attribute, whose value is a DWARF expression E.

   The result of the attribute is obtained by evaluating E as a location description with the context of the current subprogram, current program location, and an empty initial stack.

   The DWARF is ill-formed if the resulting location description L is is not comprised of one memory location description in any of the target architecture specific address spaces.

   The resulting L is the frame base of the relevant instance of the subprogram that immediately lexically encloses the subprogram or entry point.

9. `DW_AT_return_addr`

   A `DW_TAG_subprogram`, `DW_TAG_inlined_subroutine`, or `DW_TAG_entry_point` debugger information entry may have a `DW_AT_return_addr` attribute, whose value is a DWARF expression E.

   The result of the attribute is obtained by evaluating E as a location description with the context of the current subprogram, current program location, and an empty initial stack.

   The DWARF is ill-formed if the resulting location description L is not comprised one memory location description in any of the target architecture specific address spaces.

   The resulting L is the place where the return address for the subprogram or entry point is stored.

   Note

   It is unclear why `DW_TAG_inlined_subroutine` has a `DW_AT_return_addr` attribute but not a `DW_AT_frame_base` or `DW_AT_static_link` attribute. Seems it would either have all of them or none. Since inlined subprograms do not have a frame it seems they would have none of these attributes.

10. `DW_AT_call_value`, `DW_AT_call_data_location`, and `DW_AT_call_data_value`

    A `DW_TAG_call_site_parameter` debugger information entry may have a `DW_AT_call_value` attribute, whose value is a DWARF operation expression E1.

    The result of the `DW_AT_call_value` attribute is obtained by evaluating E1 as a value with the context of the call site subprogram, call site program location, and an empty initial stack.

    The call site subprogram is the subprogram containing the `DW_TAG_call_site_parameter` debugger information entry. The call site program location is the location of call site in the call site subprogram.

    The consumer may have to virtually unwind to the call site in order to evaluate the attribute. This will provide both the call site subprogram and call site program location needed to evaluate the expression.

    The resulting value V1 is the value of the parameter at the time of the call made by the call site.

    For parameters passed by reference, where the code passes a pointer to a location which contains the parameter, or for reference type parameters, the `DW_TAG_call_site_parameter` debugger information entry may also have a `DW_AT_call_data_location` attribute whose value is a DWARF operation expression E2, and a `DW_AT_call_data_value` attribute whose value is a DWARF operation expression E3.

    The value of the `DW_AT_call_data_location` attribute is obtained by evaluating E2 as a location description with the context of the call site subprogram, call site program location, and an empty initial stack.

    The resulting location description L2 is the location where the referenced parameter lives during the call made by the call site. If E2 would just be a `DW_OP_push_object_address`, then the `DW_AT_call_data_location` attribute may be omitted.

    The value of the `DW_AT_call_data_value` attribute is obtained by evaluating E3 as a value with the context of the call site subprogram, call site program location, and an empty initial stack.

    The resulting value V3 is the value in L2 at the time of the call made by the call site.

    If it is not possible to avoid the expressions of these attributes from accessing registers or memory locations that might be clobbered by the subprogram being called by the call site, then the associated attribute should not be provided.

    The reason for the restriction is that the parameter may need to be accessed during the execution of the callee. The consumer may virtually unwind from the called subprogram back to the caller and then evaluate the attribute expressions. The call frame information (see Call Frame Information) will not be able to restore registers that have been clobbered, and clobbered memory will no longer have the value at the time of the call.

11. `DW_AT_LLVM_lanes` New

    For languages that are implemented using a SIMD or SIMT execution model, a `DW_TAG_subprogram`, `DW_TAG_inlined_subroutine`, or `DW_TAG_entry_point` debugger information entry may have a `DW_AT_LLVM_lanes` attribute whose value is an integer constant that is the number of lanes per thread. This is the static number of lanes per thread. It is not the dynamic number of lanes with which the thread was initiated, for example, due to smaller or partial work-groups.

    If not present, the default value of 1 is used.

    The DWARF is ill-formed if the value is 0.

12. `DW_AT_LLVM_lane_pc` New

    For languages that are implemented using a SIMD or SIMT execution model, a `DW_TAG_subprogram`, `DW_TAG_inlined_subroutine`, or `DW_TAG_entry_point` debugging information entry may have a `DW_AT_LLVM_lane_pc` attribute whose value is a DWARF expression E.

    The result of the attribute is obtained by evaluating E as a location description with the context of the current subprogram, current program location, and an empty initial stack.

    The resulting location description L is for a thread lane count sized vector of generic type elements. The thread lane count is the value of the `DW_AT_LLVM_lanes` attribute. Each element holds the conceptual program location of the corresponding lane, where the least significant element corresponds to the first target architecture specific lane identifier and so forth. If the lane was not active when the current subprogram was called, its element is an undefined location description.

    `DW_AT_LLVM_lane_pc` allows the compiler to indicate conceptually where each lane of a SIMT thread is positioned even when it is in divergent control flow that is not active.

    Typically, the result is a location description with one composite location description with each part being a location description with either one undefined location description or one memory location description.

    If not present, the thread is not being used in a SIMT manner, and the thread’s current program location is used.

13. `DW_AT_LLVM_active_lane` New

    For languages that are implemented using a SIMD or SIMT execution model, a `DW_TAG_subprogram`, `DW_TAG_inlined_subroutine`, or `DW_TAG_entry_point` debugger information entry may have a `DW_AT_LLVM_active_lane` attribute whose value is a DWARF expression E.

    The result of the attribute is obtained by evaluating E as a value with the context of the current subprogram, current program location, and an empty initial stack.

    The DWARF is ill-formed if the resulting value V is not an integral value.

    The resulting V is a bit mask of active lanes for the current program location. The Nth least significant bit of the mask corresponds to the Nth lane. If the bit is 1 the lane is active, otherwise it is inactive.

    Some targets may update the target architecture execution mask for regions of code that must execute with different sets of lanes than the current active lanes. For example, some code must execute with all lanes made temporarily active. `DW_AT_LLVM_active_lane` allows the compiler to provide the means to determine the source language active lanes.

    If not present and `DW_AT_LLVM_lanes` is greater than 1, then the target architecture execution mask is used.

14. `DW_AT_LLVM_vector_size` New

    A `DW_TAG_base_type` debugger information entry for a base type T may have a `DW_AT_LLVM_vector_size` attribute whose value is an integer constant that is the vector type size N.

    The representation of a vector base type is as N contiguous elements, each one having the representation of a base type T’ that is the same as T without the `DW_AT_LLVM_vector_size` attribute.

    If a `DW_TAG_base_type` debugger information entry does not have a `DW_AT_LLVM_vector_size` attribute, then the base type is not a vector type.

    The DWARF is ill-formed if N is not greater than 0.

    Note

    LLVM has mention of a non-upstreamed debugger information entry that is intended to support vector types. However, that was not for a base type so would not be suitable as the type of a stack value entry. But perhaps that could be replaced by using this attribute.

15. `DW_AT_LLVM_augmentation` New

    A `DW_TAG_compile_unit` debugger information entry for a compilation unit may have a `DW_AT_LLVM_augmentation` attribute, whose value is an augmentation string.

    The augmentation string allows producers to indicate that there is additional vendor or target specific information in the debugging information entries. For example, this might be information about the version of vendor specific extensions that are being used.

    If not present, or if the string is empty, then the compilation unit has no augmentation string.

    The format for the augmentation string is:

    > `[`vendor`:v` X`.`Y[`:`options]`]`*

    Where vendor is the producer, `vX.Y` specifies the major X and minor Y version number of the extensions used, and options is an optional string providing additional information about the extensions. The version number must conform to semantic versioning [SEMVER]. The options string must not contain the “`]`” character.

    For example:

    >     [abc:v0.0][def:v1.2:feature-a=on,feature-b=3]

### Program Scope Entities

#### Unit Entities

Note

This augments DWARF Version 5 section 3.1.1 and Table 3.1.

Additional language codes defined for use with the `DW_AT_language` attribute are defined in Language Names.

Language Names
Language Name | Meaning
--- | ---
`DW_LANG_LLVM_HIP` | HIP Language.

The HIP language [HIP] can be supported by extending the C++ language.

### Other Debugger Information

#### Accelerated Access

##### Lookup By Name

###### Contents of the Name Index

Note

The following provides changes to DWARF Version 5 section 6.1.1.1.

The rule for debugger information entries included in the name index in the optional `.debug_names` section is extended to also include named `DW_TAG_variable` debugging information entries with a `DW_AT_location` attribute that includes a `DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address` operation.

The name index must contain an entry for each debugging information entry that defines a named subprogram, label, variable, type, or namespace, subject to the following rules:

- `DW_TAG_variable` debugging information entries with a `DW_AT_location` attribute that includes a `DW_OP_addr`, `DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address`, or `DW_OP_form_tls_address` operation are included; otherwise, they are excluded.

###### Data Representation of the Name Index

<h7>Section Header</h7>

Note

The following provides an addition to DWARF Version 5 section 6.1.1.4.1 item 14 `augmentation_string`.

A null-terminated UTF-8 vendor specific augmentation string, which provides additional information about the contents of this index. If provided, the recommended format for augmentation string is:

> `[`vendor`:v` X`.`Y[`:`options]`]`*

Where vendor is the producer, `vX.Y` specifies the major X and minor Y version number of the extensions used in the DWARF of the compilation unit, and options is an optional string providing additional information about the extensions. The version number must conform to semantic versioning [SEMVER]. The options string must not contain the “`]`” character.

For example:

>     [abc:v0.0][def:v1.2:feature-a=on,feature-b=3]

Note

This is different to the definition in DWARF Version 5 but is consistent with the other augmentation strings and allows multiple vendor extensions to be supported.

#### Line Number Information

##### The Line Number Program Header

###### Standard Content Descriptions

Note

This augments DWARF Version 5 section 6.2.4.1.

1. `DW_LNCT_LLVM_source`

   The component is a null-terminated UTF-8 source text string with “`\n`” line endings. This content code is paired with the same forms as `DW_LNCT_path`. It can be used for file name entries.

   The value is an empty null-terminated string if no source is available. If the source is available but is an empty file then the value is a null-terminated single “`\n`“.

   When the source field is present, consumers can use the embedded source instead of attempting to discover the source on disk using the file path provided by the `DW_LNCT_path` field. When the source field is absent, consumers can access the file to get the source text.

   This is particularly useful for programing languages that support runtime compilation and runtime generation of source text. In these cases, the source text does not reside in any permanent file. For example, the OpenCL language [:ref:`OpenCL <amdgpu-dwarf-OpenCL>`] supports online compilation.

2. `DW_LNCT_LLVM_is_MD5`

   `DW_LNCT_LLVM_is_MD5` indicates if the `DW_LNCT_MD5` content kind, if present, is valid: when 0 it is not valid and when 1 it is valid. If `DW_LNCT_LLVM_is_MD5` content kind is not present, and `DW_LNCT_MD5` content kind is present, then the MD5 checksum is valid.

   `DW_LNCT_LLVM_is_MD5` is always paired with the `DW_FORM_udata` form.

   This allows a compilation unit to have a mixture of files with and without MD5 checksums. This can happen when multiple relocatable files are linked together.

#### Call Frame Information

Note

This section provides changes to existing Call Frame Information and defines instructions added by the proposal. Additional support is added for address spaces. Register unwind DWARF expressions are generalized to allow any location description, including those with composite and implicit location descriptions.

These changes would be incorporated into the DWARF Version 5 section 6.1.

##### Structure of Call Frame Information

The register rules are:

undefined

  A register that has this rule has no recoverable value in the previous frame. (By convention, it is not preserved by a callee.)

same value

  This register has not been modified from the previous frame. (By convention, it is preserved by the callee, but the callee has not modified it.)

offset(N)

  N is a signed byte offset. The previous value of this register is saved at the location description computed as if the DWARF operation expression `DW_OP_LLVM_offset N` is evaluated as a location description with an initial stack comprising the location description of the current CFA (see DWARF Operation Expressions).

val_offset(N)

  N is a signed byte offset. The previous value of this register is the memory byte address of the location description computed as if the DWARF operation expression `DW_OP_LLVM_offset N` is evaluated as a location description with an initial stack comprising the location description of the current CFA (see DWARF Operation Expressions).

  The DWARF is ill-formed if the CFA location description is not a memory byte address location description, or if the register size does not match the size of an address in the address space of the current CFA location description.

  Since the CFA location description is required to be a memory byte address location description, the value of val_offset(N) will also be a memory byte address location description since it is offsetting the CFA location description by N bytes. Furthermore, the value of val_offset(N) will be a memory byte address in the same address space as the CFA location description.

  Note

  Should DWARF allow the address size to be a different size to the size of the register? Requiring them to be the same bit size avoids any issue of conversion as the bit contents of the register is simply interpreted as a value of the address.

  GDB has a per register hook that allows a target specific conversion on a register by register basis. It defaults to truncation of bigger registers, and to actually reading bytes from the next register (or reads out of bounds for the last register) for smaller registers. There are no GDB tests that read a register out of bounds (except an illegal hand written assembly test).

register(R)

  The previous value of this register is stored in another register numbered R.

  The DWARF is ill-formed if the register sizes do not match.

expression(E)

  The previous value of this register is located at the location description produced by evaluating the DWARF operation expression E (see DWARF Operation Expressions).

  E is evaluated as a location description in the context of the current subprogram, current program location, and with an initial stack comprising the location description of the current CFA.

val_expression(E)

  The previous value of this register is the value produced by evaluating the DWARF operation expression E (see DWARF Operation Expressions).

  E is evaluated as a value in the context of the current subprogram, current program location, and with an initial stack comprising the location description of the current CFA.

  The DWARF is ill-formed if the resulting value type size does not match the register size.

  Note

  This has limited usefulness as the DWARF expression E can only produce values up to the size of the generic type. This is due to not allowing any operations that specify a type in a CFI operation expression. This makes it unusable for registers that are larger than the generic type. However, expression(E) can be used to create an implicit location description of any size.

architectural

  The rule is defined externally to this specification by the augmenter.

A Common Information Entry holds information that is shared among many Frame Description Entries. There is at least one CIE in every non-empty `.debug_frame` section. A CIE contains the following fields, in order:

1. `length` (initial length)

   A constant that gives the number of bytes of the CIE structure, not including the length field itself. The size of the length field plus the value of length must be an integral multiple of the address size specified in the `address_size` field.

2. `CIE_id` (4 or 8 bytes, see 32-Bit and 64-Bit DWARF Formats)

   A constant that is used to distinguish CIEs from FDEs.

   In the 32-bit DWARF format, the value of the CIE id in the CIE header is 0xffffffff; in the 64-bit DWARF format, the value is 0xffffffffffffffff.

3. `version` (ubyte)

   A version number. This number is specific to the call frame information and is independent of the DWARF version number.

   The value of the CIE version number is 4.

   Note

   Would this be increased to 5 to reflect the changes in the proposal?

4. `augmentation` (sequence of UTF-8 characters)

   A null-terminated UTF-8 string that identifies the augmentation to this CIE or to the FDEs that use it. If a reader encounters an augmentation string that is unexpected, then only the following fields can be read:

   - CIE: length, CIE_id, version, augmentation

   - FDE: length, CIE_pointer, initial_location, address_range

   If there is no augmentation, this value is a zero byte.

   The augmentation string allows users to indicate that there is additional vendor and target architecture specific information in the CIE or FDE which is needed to virtually unwind a stack frame. For example, this might be information about dynamically allocated data which needs to be freed on exit from the routine.

   Because the `.debug_frame` section is useful independently of any `.debug_info` section, the augmentation string always uses UTF-8 encoding.

   The recommended format for the augmentation string is:

   > `[`vendor`:v` X`.`Y[`:`options]`]`*

   Where vendor is the producer, `vX.Y` specifies the major X and minor Y version number of the extensions used, and options is an optional string providing additional information about the extensions. The version number must conform to semantic versioning [SEMVER]. The options string must not contain the “`]`” character.

   For example:

   >     [abc:v0.0][def:v1.2:feature-a=on,feature-b=3]

5. `address_size` (ubyte)

   The size of a target address in this CIE and any FDEs that use it, in bytes. If a compilation unit exists for this frame, its address size must match the address size here.

6. `segment_selector_size` (ubyte)

   The size of a segment selector in this CIE and any FDEs that use it, in bytes.

7. `code_alignment_factor` (unsigned LEB128)

   A constant that is factored out of all advance location instructions (see Row Creation Instructions). The resulting value is `(operand * code_alignment_factor)`.

8. `data_alignment_factor` (signed LEB128)

   A constant that is factored out of certain offset instructions (see CFA Definition Instructions and Register Rule Instructions). The resulting value is `(operand * data_alignment_factor)`.

9. `return_address_register` (unsigned LEB128)

   An unsigned LEB128 constant that indicates which column in the rule table represents the return address of the subprogram. Note that this column might not correspond to an actual machine register.

10. `initial_instructions` (array of ubyte)

    A sequence of rules that are interpreted to create the initial setting of each column in the table.

    The default rule for all columns before interpretation of the initial instructions is the undefined rule. However, an ABI authoring body or a compilation system authoring body may specify an alternate default value for any or all columns.

11. `padding` (array of ubyte)

    Enough `DW_CFA_nop` instructions to make the size of this entry match the length value above.

An FDE contains the following fields, in order:

1. `length` (initial length)

   A constant that gives the number of bytes of the header and instruction stream for this subprogram, not including the length field itself. The size of the length field plus the value of length must be an integral multiple of the address size.

2. `CIE_pointer` (4 or 8 bytes, see 32-Bit and 64-Bit DWARF Formats)

   A constant offset into the `.debug_frame` section that denotes the CIE that is associated with this FDE.

3. `initial_location` (segment selector and target address)

   The address of the first location associated with this table entry. If the segment_selector_size field of this FDE’s CIE is non-zero, the initial location is preceded by a segment selector of the given length.

4. `address_range` (target address)

   The number of bytes of program instructions described by this entry.

5. `instructions` (array of ubyte)

   A sequence of table defining instructions that are described in Call Frame Instructions.

6. `padding` (array of ubyte)

   Enough `DW_CFA_nop` instructions to make the size of this entry match the length value above.

##### Call Frame Instructions

Some call frame instructions have operands that are encoded as DWARF operation expressions E (see DWARF Operation Expressions). The DWARF operations that can be used in E have the following restrictions:

- `DW_OP_addrx`, `DW_OP_call2`, `DW_OP_call4`, `DW_OP_call_ref`, `DW_OP_const_type`, `DW_OP_constx`, `DW_OP_convert`, `DW_OP_deref_type`, `DW_OP_fbreg`, `DW_OP_implicit_pointer`, `DW_OP_regval_type`, `DW_OP_reinterpret`, and `DW_OP_xderef_type` operations are not allowed because the call frame information must not depend on other debug sections.

- `DW_OP_push_object_address` is not allowed because there is no object context to provide a value to push.

- `DW_OP_LLVM_push_lane` is not allowed because the call frame instructions describe the actions for the whole thread, not the lanes independently.

- `DW_OP_call_frame_cfa` and `DW_OP_entry_value` are not allowed because their use would be circular.

- `DW_OP_LLVM_call_frame_entry_reg` is not allowed if evaluating E causes a circular dependency between `DW_OP_LLVM_call_frame_entry_reg` operations.

  For example, if a register R1 has a `DW_CFA_def_cfa_expression` instruction that evaluates a `DW_OP_LLVM_call_frame_entry_reg` operation that specifies register R2, and register R2 has a `DW_CFA_def_cfa_expression` instruction that that evaluates a `DW_OP_LLVM_call_frame_entry_reg` operation that specifies register R1.

Call frame instructions to which these restrictions apply include `DW_CFA_def_cfa_expression`, `DW_CFA_expression`, and `DW_CFA_val_expression`.

###### Row Creation Instructions

Note

These instructions are the same as in DWARF Version 5 section 6.4.2.1.

###### CFA Definition Instructions

1. `DW_CFA_def_cfa`

   The `DW_CFA_def_cfa` instruction takes two unsigned LEB128 operands representing a register number R and a (non-factored) byte displacement B. AS is set to the target architecture default address space identifier. The required action is to define the current CFA rule to be the result of evaluating the DWARF operation expression `DW_OP_constu AS; DW_OP_aspace_bregx R, B` as a location description.

2. `DW_CFA_def_cfa_sf`

   The `DW_CFA_def_cfa_sf` instruction takes two operands: an unsigned LEB128 value representing a register number R and a signed LEB128 factored byte displacement B. AS is set to the target architecture default address space identifier. The required action is to define the current CFA rule to be the result of evaluating the DWARF operation expression `DW_OP_constu AS; DW_OP_aspace_bregx R, B*data_alignment_factor` as a location description.

   The action is the same as `DW_CFA_def_cfa` except that the second operand is signed and factored.

3. `DW_CFA_def_aspace_cfa` New

   The `DW_CFA_def_aspace_cfa` instruction takes three unsigned LEB128 operands representing a register number R, a (non-factored) byte displacement B, and a target architecture specific address space identifier AS. The required action is to define the current CFA rule to be the result of evaluating the DWARF operation expression `DW_OP_constu AS; DW_OP_aspace_bregx R, B` as a location description.

   If AS is not one of the values defined by the target architecture specific `DW_ASPACE_*` values then the DWARF expression is ill-formed.

4. `DW_CFA_def_aspace_cfa_sf` New

   The `DW_CFA_def_cfa_sf` instruction takes three operands: an unsigned LEB128 value representing a register number R, a signed LEB128 factored byte displacement B, and an unsigned LEB128 value representing a target architecture specific address space identifier AS. The required action is to define the current CFA rule to be the result of evaluating the DWARF operation expression `DW_OP_constu AS; DW_OP_aspace_bregx R, B*data_alignment_factor` as a location description.

   If AS is not one of the values defined by the target architecture specific `DW_ASPACE_*` values, then the DWARF expression is ill-formed.

   The action is the same as `DW_CFA_aspace_def_cfa` except that the second operand is signed and factored.

5. `DW_CFA_def_cfa_register`

   The `DW_CFA_def_cfa_register` instruction takes a single unsigned LEB128 operand representing a register number R. The required action is to define the current CFA rule to be the result of evaluating the DWARF operation expression `DW_OP_constu AS; DW_OP_aspace_bregx R, B` as a location description. B and AS are the old CFA byte displacement and address space respectively.

   If the subprogram has no current CFA rule, or the rule was defined by a `DW_CFA_def_cfa_expression` instruction, then the DWARF is ill-formed.

6. `DW_CFA_def_cfa_offset`

   The `DW_CFA_def_cfa_offset` instruction takes a single unsigned LEB128 operand representing a (non-factored) byte displacement B. The required action is to define the current CFA rule to be the result of evaluating the DWARF operation expression `DW_OP_constu AS; DW_OP_aspace_bregx R, B` as a location description. R and AS are the old CFA register number and address space respectively.

   If the subprogram has no current CFA rule, or the rule was defined by a `DW_CFA_def_cfa_expression` instruction, then the DWARF is ill-formed.

7. `DW_CFA_def_cfa_offset_sf`

   The `DW_CFA_def_cfa_offset_sf` instruction takes a signed LEB128 operand representing a factored byte displacement B. The required action is to define the current CFA rule to be the result of evaluating the DWARF operation expression `DW_OP_constu AS; DW_OP_aspace_bregx R, B*data_alignment_factor` as a location description. R and AS are the old CFA register number and address space respectively.

   If the subprogram has no current CFA rule, or the rule was defined by a `DW_CFA_def_cfa_expression` instruction, then the DWARF is ill-formed.

   The action is the same as `DW_CFA_def_cfa_offset` except that the operand is signed and factored.

8. `DW_CFA_def_cfa_expression`

   The `DW_CFA_def_cfa_expression` instruction takes a single operand encoded as a `DW_FORM_exprloc` value representing a DWARF operation expression E. The required action is to define the current CFA rule to be the result of evaluating E as a location description in the context of the current subprogram, current program location, and an empty initial stack.

   See Call Frame Instructions regarding restrictions on the DWARF expression operations that can be used in E.

   The DWARF is ill-formed if the result of evaluating E is not a memory byte address location description.

###### Register Rule Instructions

1. `DW_CFA_undefined`

   The `DW_CFA_undefined` instruction takes a single unsigned LEB128 operand that represents a register number R. The required action is to set the rule for the register specified by R to `undefined`.

2. `DW_CFA_same_value`

   The `DW_CFA_same_value` instruction takes a single unsigned LEB128 operand that represents a register number R. The required action is to set the rule for the register specified by R to `same value`.

3. `DW_CFA_offset`

   The `DW_CFA_offset` instruction takes two operands: a register number R (encoded with the opcode) and an unsigned LEB128 constant representing a factored displacement B. The required action is to change the rule for the register specified by R to be an offset(B*data_alignment_factor) rule.

   Note

   Seems this should be named `DW_CFA_offset_uf` since the offset is unsigned factored.

4. `DW_CFA_offset_extended`

   The `DW_CFA_offset_extended` instruction takes two unsigned LEB128 operands representing a register number R and a factored displacement B. This instruction is identical to `DW_CFA_offset` except for the encoding and size of the register operand.

   Note

   Seems this should be named `DW_CFA_offset_extended_uf` since the displacement is unsigned factored.

5. `DW_CFA_offset_extended_sf`

   The `DW_CFA_offset_extended_sf` instruction takes two operands: an unsigned LEB128 value representing a register number R and a signed LEB128 factored displacement B. This instruction is identical to `DW_CFA_offset_extended` except that B is signed.

6. `DW_CFA_val_offset`

   The `DW_CFA_val_offset` instruction takes two unsigned LEB128 operands representing a register number R and a factored displacement B. The required action is to change the rule for the register indicated by R to be a val_offset(B*data_alignment_factor) rule.

   Note

   Seems this should be named `DW_CFA_val_offset_uf` since the displacement is unsigned factored.

   Note

   An alternative is to define `DW_CFA_val_offset` to implicitly use the target architecture default address space, and add another operation that specifies the address space.

7. `DW_CFA_val_offset_sf`

   The `DW_CFA_val_offset_sf` instruction takes two operands: an unsigned LEB128 value representing a register number R and a signed LEB128 factored displacement B. This instruction is identical to `DW_CFA_val_offset` except that B is signed.

8. `DW_CFA_register`

   The `DW_CFA_register` instruction takes two unsigned LEB128 operands representing register numbers R1 and R2 respectively. The required action is to set the rule for the register specified by R1 to be a register(R2) rule.

9. `DW_CFA_expression`

   The `DW_CFA_expression` instruction takes two operands: an unsigned LEB128 value representing a register number R, and a `DW_FORM_block` value representing a DWARF operation expression E. The required action is to change the rule for the register specified by R to be an expression(E) rule.

   That is, E computes the location description where the register value can be retrieved.

   See Call Frame Instructions regarding restrictions on the DWARF expression operations that can be used in E.

10. `DW_CFA_val_expression`

    The `DW_CFA_val_expression` instruction takes two operands: an unsigned LEB128 value representing a register number R, and a `DW_FORM_block` value representing a DWARF operation expression E. The required action is to change the rule for the register specified by R to be a val_expression(E) rule.

    That is, E computes the value of register R.

    See Call Frame Instructions regarding restrictions on the DWARF expression operations that can be used in E.

    If the result of evaluating E is not a value with a base type size that matches the register size, then the DWARF is ill-formed.

11. `DW_CFA_restore`

    The `DW_CFA_restore` instruction takes a single operand (encoded with the opcode) that represents a register number R. The required action is to change the rule for the register specified by R to the rule assigned it by the `initial_instructions` in the CIE.

12. `DW_CFA_restore_extended`

    The `DW_CFA_restore_extended` instruction takes a single unsigned LEB128 operand that represents a register number R. This instruction is identical to `DW_CFA_restore` except for the encoding and size of the register operand.

###### Row State Instructions

Note

These instructions are the same as in DWARF Version 5 section 6.4.2.4.

###### Padding Instruction

Note

These instructions are the same as in DWARF Version 5 section 6.4.2.5.

##### Call Frame Instruction Usage

Note

The same as in DWARF Version 5 section 6.4.3.

##### Call Frame Calling Address

Note

The same as in DWARF Version 5 section 6.4.4.

### Data Representation

#### 32-Bit and 64-Bit DWARF Formats

Note

This augments DWARF Version 5 section 7.4.

1. Within the body of the `.debug_info` section, certain forms of attribute value depend on the choice of DWARF format as follows. For the 32-bit DWARF format, the value is a 4-byte unsigned integer; for the 64-bit DWARF format, the value is an 8-byte unsigned integer.

   `.debug_info` section attribute form roles
   Form | Role
   --- | ---
   DW_FORM_line_strp | offset in `.debug_line_str`
   DW_FORM_ref_addr | offset in `.debug_info`
   DW_FORM_sec_offset | offset in a section other than `.debug_info` or `.debug_str`
   DW_FORM_strp | offset in `.debug_str`
   DW_FORM_strp_sup | offset in `.debug_str` section of supplementary object file
   DW_OP_call_ref | offset in `.debug_info`
   DW_OP_implicit_pointer | offset in `.debug_info`
   DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_implicit_pointer | offset in `.debug_info`

#### Format of Debugging Information

##### Attribute Encodings

Note

This augments DWARF Version 5 section 7.5.4 and Table 7.5.

The following table gives the encoding of the additional debugging information entry attributes.

Attribute encodings
Attribute Name | Value | Classes
--- | --- | ---
DW_AT_LLVM_active_lane | 0x3e08 | exprloc, loclist
DW_AT_LLVM_augmentation | 0x3e09 | string
DW_AT_LLVM_lanes | 0x3e0a | constant
DW_AT_LLVM_lane_pc | 0x3e0b | exprloc, loclist
DW_AT_LLVM_vector_size | 0x3e0c | constant

#### DWARF Expressions

Note

Rename DWARF Version 5 section 7.7 to reflect the unification of location descriptions into DWARF expressions.

##### Operation Expressions

Note

Rename DWARF Version 5 section 7.7.1 and delete section 7.7.2 to reflect the unification of location descriptions into DWARF expressions.

This augments DWARF Version 5 section 7.7.1 and Table 7.9.

The following table gives the encoding of the additional DWARF expression operations.

DWARF Operation Encodings
Operation | Code | Number of Operands | Notes
--- | --- | --- | ---
DW_OP_LLVM_form_aspace_address | 0xe1 | 0 |
DW_OP_LLVM_push_lane | 0xe2 | 0 |
DW_OP_LLVM_offset | 0xe3 | 0 |
DW_OP_LLVM_offset_uconst | 0xe4 | 1 | ULEB128 byte displacement
DW_OP_LLVM_bit_offset | 0xe5 | 0 |
DW_OP_LLVM_call_frame_entry_reg | 0xe6 | 1 | ULEB128 register number
DW_OP_LLVM_undefined | 0xe7 | 0 |
DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_bregx | 0xe8 | 2 | ULEB128 register number, ULEB128 byte displacement
DW_OP_LLVM_aspace_implicit_pointer | 0xe9 | 2 | 4- or 8-byte offset of DIE, SLEB128 byte displacement
DW_OP_LLVM_piece_end | 0xea | 0 |
DW_OP_LLVM_extend | 0xeb | 2 | ULEB128 bit size, ULEB128 count
DW_OP_LLVM_select_bit_piece | 0xec | 2 | ULEB128 bit size, ULEB128 count

##### Location List Expressions

Note

Rename DWARF Version 5 section 7.7.3 to reflect that location lists are a kind of DWARF expression.

#### Source Languages

Note

This augments DWARF Version 5 section 7.12 and Table 7.17.

The following table gives the encoding of the additional DWARF languages.

Language encodings
Language Name | Value | Default Lower Bound
--- | --- | ---
`DW_LANG_LLVM_HIP` | 0x8100 | 0

#### Address Class and Address Space Encodings

Note

This replaces DWARF Version 5 section 7.13.

The encodings of the constants used for the currently defined address classes are given in Address class encodings.

Address class encodings
Address Class Name | Value
--- | ---
`DW_ADDR_none` | 0x0000
`DW_ADDR_LLVM_global` | 0x0001
`DW_ADDR_LLVM_constant` | 0x0002
`DW_ADDR_LLVM_group` | 0x0003
`DW_ADDR_LLVM_private` | 0x0004
`DW_ADDR_LLVM_lo_user` | 0x8000
`DW_ADDR_LLVM_hi_user` | 0xffff

#### Line Number Information

Note

This augments DWARF Version 5 section 7.22 and Table 7.27.

The following table gives the encoding of the additional line number header entry formats.

Line number header entry format encodings
Line number header entry format name | Value
--- | ---
`DW_LNCT_LLVM_source` | 0x2001
`DW_LNCT_LLVM_is_MD5` | 0x2002

#### Call Frame Information

Note

This augments DWARF Version 5 section 7.24 and Table 7.29.

The following table gives the encoding of the additional call frame information instructions.

Call frame instruction encodings
Instruction | High 2 Bits | Low 6 Bits | Operand 1 | Operand 2 | Operand 3
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
DW_CFA_def_aspace_cfa | 0 | 0x30 | ULEB128 register | ULEB128 offset | ULEB128 address space
DW_CFA_def_aspace_cfa_sf | 0 | 0x31 | ULEB128 register | SLEB128 offset | ULEB128 address space

### Attributes by Tag Value (Informative)

Note

This augments DWARF Version 5 Appendix A and Table A.1.

The following table provides the additional attributes that are applicable to debugger information entries.

Attributes by tag value
Tag Name | Applicable Attributes
--- | ---

`DW_TAG_base_type`

- `DW_AT_LLVM_vector_size`

`DW_TAG_compile_unit`

- `DW_AT_LLVM_augmentation`

`DW_TAG_entry_point`

- `DW_AT_LLVM_active_lane`

- `DW_AT_LLVM_lane_pc`

- `DW_AT_LLVM_lanes`

`DW_TAG_inlined_subroutine`

- `DW_AT_LLVM_active_lane`

- `DW_AT_LLVM_lane_pc`

- `DW_AT_LLVM_lanes`

`DW_TAG_subprogram`

- `DW_AT_LLVM_active_lane`

- `DW_AT_LLVM_lane_pc`

- `DW_AT_LLVM_lanes`

## Examples

The AMD GPU specific usage of the features in the proposal, including examples, is available at DWARF Debug Information.

## References

1. [AMD] Advanced Micro Devices

2. [AMD-ROCm] AMD ROCm Platform

3. [AMD-ROCgdb] AMD ROCm Debugger (ROCgdb)

4. [AMDGPU-LLVM] User Guide for AMDGPU LLVM Backend

5. [CUDA] Nvidia CUDA Language

6. [DWARF] DWARF Debugging Information Format

7. [ELF] Executable and Linkable Format (ELF)

8. [GCC] GCC: The GNU Compiler Collection

9. [GDB] GDB: The GNU Project Debugger

10. [HIP] HIP Programming Guide

11. [HSA] Heterogeneous System Architecture (HSA) Foundation

12. [LLVM] The LLVM Compiler Infrastructure

13. [OpenCL] The OpenCL Specification Version 2.0

14. [Perforce-TotalView] Perforce TotalView HPC Debugging Software

15. [SEMVER] Semantic Versioning