# Source code for fontTools.otlLib.builder

    from __future__ import annotations

    from collections import namedtuple, OrderedDict
    import itertools
    from typing import Dict, Union
    from fontTools.misc.fixedTools import fixedToFloat
    from fontTools.misc.roundTools import otRound
    from fontTools import ttLib
    from fontTools.ttLib.tables import otTables as ot
    from fontTools.ttLib.tables.otBase import (
        ValueRecord,
        valueRecordFormatDict,
        OTLOffsetOverflowError,
        OTTableWriter,
    )
    from fontTools.ttLib.ttFont import TTFont
    from fontTools.feaLib.ast import STATNameStatement
    from fontTools.otlLib.optimize.gpos import (
        _compression_level_from_env,
        compact_lookup,
    )
    from fontTools.otlLib.error import OpenTypeLibError
    from fontTools.misc.loggingTools import deprecateFunction
    from functools import reduce
    import logging
    import copy

    log = logging.getLogger(__name__)

    def buildCoverage(glyphs, glyphMap):
        """Builds a coverage table.

        Coverage tables (as defined in the `OpenType spec <https://docs.microsoft.com/en-gb/typography/opentype/spec/chapter2#coverage-table>`__)
        are used in all OpenType Layout lookups apart from the Extension type, and
        define the glyphs involved in a layout subtable. This allows shaping engines
        to compare the glyph stream with the coverage table and quickly determine
        whether a subtable should be involved in a shaping operation.

        This function takes a list of glyphs and a glyphname-to-ID map, and
        returns a ``Coverage`` object representing the coverage table.

        Example::

            glyphMap = font.getReverseGlyphMap()
            glyphs = [ "A", "B", "C" ]
            coverage = buildCoverage(glyphs, glyphMap)

        Args:
            glyphs: a sequence of glyph names.
            glyphMap: a glyph name to ID map, typically returned from
                ``font.getReverseGlyphMap()``.

        Returns:
            An ``otTables.Coverage`` object (empty if no glyphs supplied).
        """
        # Per the OpenType spec: "For cases in which subtable offset fields are not
        # documented as permitting NULL values, font compilers must include a subtable
        # of the indicated format, even if it is a header stub without further data
        # (for example, a coverage table with no glyph IDs)."
        # https://github.com/fonttools/fonttools/issues/4003
        self = ot.Coverage()
        if glyphs:
            try:
                self.glyphs = sorted(set(glyphs), key=glyphMap.__getitem__)
            except KeyError as e:
                raise ValueError(f"Could not find glyph {e} in font") from e
        else:
            self.glyphs = []
        return self

    LOOKUP_FLAG_RIGHT_TO_LEFT = 0x0001
    LOOKUP_FLAG_IGNORE_BASE_GLYPHS = 0x0002
    LOOKUP_FLAG_IGNORE_LIGATURES = 0x0004
    LOOKUP_FLAG_IGNORE_MARKS = 0x0008
    LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET = 0x0010

    def buildLookup(subtables, flags=0, markFilterSet=None, table=None, extension=False):
        """Turns a collection of rules into a lookup.

        A Lookup (as defined in the `OpenType Spec <https://docs.microsoft.com/en-gb/typography/opentype/spec/chapter2#lookupTbl>`__)
        wraps the individual rules in a layout operation (substitution or
        positioning) in a data structure expressing their overall lookup type -
        for example, single substitution, mark-to-base attachment, and so on -
        as well as the lookup flags and any mark filtering sets. You may import
        the following constants to express lookup flags:

        - ``LOOKUP_FLAG_RIGHT_TO_LEFT``
        - ``LOOKUP_FLAG_IGNORE_BASE_GLYPHS``
        - ``LOOKUP_FLAG_IGNORE_LIGATURES``
        - ``LOOKUP_FLAG_IGNORE_MARKS``
        - ``LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET``

        Args:
            subtables: A list of layout subtable objects (e.g.
                ``MultipleSubst``, ``PairPos``, etc.) or ``None``.
            flags (int): This lookup's flags.
            markFilterSet: Either ``None`` if no mark filtering set is used, or
                an integer representing the filtering set to be used for this
                lookup. If a mark filtering set is provided,
                `LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET` will be set on the lookup's
                flags.
            table (str): The name of the table this lookup belongs to, e.g. "GPOS" or "GSUB".
            extension (bool): ``True`` if this is an extension lookup, ``False`` otherwise.

        Returns:
            An ``otTables.Lookup`` object or ``None`` if there are no subtables
            supplied.
        """
        if subtables is None:
            return None
        subtables = [st for st in subtables if st is not None]
        if not subtables:
            return None
        assert all(
            t.LookupType == subtables[0].LookupType for t in subtables
        ), "all subtables must have the same LookupType; got %s" % repr(
            [t.LookupType for t in subtables]
        )

        if extension:
            assert table in ("GPOS", "GSUB")
            lookupType = 7 if table == "GSUB" else 9
            extSubTableClass = ot.lookupTypes[table][lookupType]
            for i, st in enumerate(subtables):
                subtables[i] = extSubTableClass()
                subtables[i].Format = 1
                subtables[i].ExtSubTable = st
                subtables[i].ExtensionLookupType = st.LookupType
        else:
            lookupType = subtables[0].LookupType

        self = ot.Lookup()
        self.LookupType = lookupType
        self.LookupFlag = flags
        self.SubTable = subtables
        self.SubTableCount = len(self.SubTable)
        if markFilterSet is not None:
            self.LookupFlag |= LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET
            assert isinstance(markFilterSet, int), markFilterSet
            self.MarkFilteringSet = markFilterSet
        else:
            assert (self.LookupFlag & LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET) == 0, (
                "if markFilterSet is None, flags must not set "
                "LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET; flags=0x%04x" % flags
            )
        return self

    class LookupBuilder(object):
        SUBTABLE_BREAK_ = "SUBTABLE_BREAK"

        def __init__(self, font, location, table, lookup_type, extension=False):
            self.font = font
            self.glyphMap = font.getReverseGlyphMap()
            self.location = location
            self.table, self.lookup_type = table, lookup_type
            self.lookupflag = 0
            self.markFilterSet = None
            self.lookup_index = None  # assigned when making final tables
            self.extension = extension
            assert table in ("GPOS", "GSUB")

        def equals(self, other):
            return (
                isinstance(other, self.__class__)
                and self.table == other.table
                and self.lookupflag == other.lookupflag
                and self.markFilterSet == other.markFilterSet
                and self.extension == other.extension
            )

        def promote_lookup_type(self, is_named_lookup):
            return [self]

        def inferGlyphClasses(self):
            """Infers glyph glasses for the GDEF table, such as {"cedilla":3}."""
            return {}

        def getAlternateGlyphs(self):
            """Helper for building 'aalt' features."""
            return {}

        def buildLookup_(self, subtables):
            return buildLookup(
                subtables,
                self.lookupflag,
                self.markFilterSet,
                self.table,
                self.extension,
            )

        def buildMarkClasses_(self, marks):
            """{"cedilla": ("BOTTOM", ast.Anchor), ...} --> {"BOTTOM":0, "TOP":1}

            Helper for MarkBasePostBuilder, MarkLigPosBuilder, and
            MarkMarkPosBuilder. Seems to return the same numeric IDs
            for mark classes as the AFDKO makeotf tool.
            """
            ids = {}
            for mark in sorted(marks.keys(), key=self.font.getGlyphID):
                markClassName, _markAnchor = marks[mark]
                if markClassName not in ids:
                    ids[markClassName] = len(ids)
            return ids

        def setBacktrackCoverage_(self, prefix, subtable):
            subtable.BacktrackGlyphCount = len(prefix)
            subtable.BacktrackCoverage = []
            for p in reversed(prefix):
                coverage = buildCoverage(p, self.glyphMap)
                subtable.BacktrackCoverage.append(coverage)

        def setLookAheadCoverage_(self, suffix, subtable):
            subtable.LookAheadGlyphCount = len(suffix)
            subtable.LookAheadCoverage = []
            for s in suffix:
                coverage = buildCoverage(s, self.glyphMap)
                subtable.LookAheadCoverage.append(coverage)

        def setInputCoverage_(self, glyphs, subtable):
            subtable.InputGlyphCount = len(glyphs)
            subtable.InputCoverage = []
            for g in glyphs:
                coverage = buildCoverage(g, self.glyphMap)
                subtable.InputCoverage.append(coverage)

        def setCoverage_(self, glyphs, subtable):
            subtable.GlyphCount = len(glyphs)
            subtable.Coverage = []
            for g in glyphs:
                coverage = buildCoverage(g, self.glyphMap)
                subtable.Coverage.append(coverage)

        def build_subst_subtables(self, mapping, klass):
            substitutions = [{}]
            for key in mapping:
                if key[0] == self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_:
                    substitutions.append({})
                else:
                    substitutions[-1][key] = mapping[key]
            subtables = [klass(s) for s in substitutions]
            return subtables

        def add_subtable_break(self, location):
            """Add an explicit subtable break.

            Args:
                location: A string or tuple representing the location in the
                    original source which produced this break, or ``None`` if
                    no location is provided.
            """
            log.warning(
                OpenTypeLibError(
                    'unsupported "subtable" statement for lookup type', location
                )
            )

        def can_add_mapping(self, _mapping) -> bool:
            # used by AnySubstBuilder,  below
            return True

    class AlternateSubstBuilder(LookupBuilder):
        """Builds an Alternate Substitution (GSUB3) lookup.

        Users are expected to manually add alternate glyph substitutions to
        the ``alternates`` attribute after the object has been initialized,
        e.g.::

            builder.alternates["A"] = ["A.alt1", "A.alt2"]

        Attributes:
            font (``fontTools.TTLib.TTFont``): A font object.
            location: A string or tuple representing the location in the original
                source which produced this lookup.
            alternates: An ordered dictionary of alternates, mapping glyph names
                to a list of names of alternates.
            lookupflag (int): The lookup's flag
            markFilterSet: Either ``None`` if no mark filtering set is used, or
                an integer representing the filtering set to be used for this
                lookup. If a mark filtering set is provided,
                `LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET` will be set on the lookup's
                flags.
        """

        def __init__(self, font, location):
            LookupBuilder.__init__(self, font, location, "GSUB", 3)
            self.alternates = OrderedDict()

        def equals(self, other):
            return LookupBuilder.equals(self, other) and self.alternates == other.alternates

        def build(self):
            """Build the lookup.

            Returns:
                An ``otTables.Lookup`` object representing the alternate
                substitution lookup.
            """
            subtables = self.build_subst_subtables(
                self.alternates, buildAlternateSubstSubtable
            )
            return self.buildLookup_(subtables)

        def getAlternateGlyphs(self):
            return self.alternates

        def add_subtable_break(self, location):
            self.alternates[(self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_, location)] = self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_

    class ChainContextualRule(
        namedtuple("ChainContextualRule", ["prefix", "glyphs", "suffix", "lookups"])
    ):
        @property
        def is_subtable_break(self):
            return self.prefix == LookupBuilder.SUBTABLE_BREAK_

    class ChainContextualRuleset:
        def __init__(self):
            self.rules = []

        def addRule(self, rule):
            self.rules.append(rule)

        @property
        def hasPrefixOrSuffix(self):
            # Do we have any prefixes/suffixes? If this is False for all
            # rulesets, we can express the whole lookup as GPOS5/GSUB7.
            for rule in self.rules:
                if len(rule.prefix) > 0 or len(rule.suffix) > 0:
                    return True
            return False

        @property
        def hasAnyGlyphClasses(self):
            # Do we use glyph classes anywhere in the rules? If this is False
            # we can express this subtable as a Format 1.
            for rule in self.rules:
                for coverage in (rule.prefix, rule.glyphs, rule.suffix):
                    if any(len(x) > 1 for x in coverage):
                        return True
            return False

        def format2ClassDefs(self):
            PREFIX, GLYPHS, SUFFIX = 0, 1, 2
            classDefBuilders = []
            for ix in [PREFIX, GLYPHS, SUFFIX]:
                context = []
                for r in self.rules:
                    context.append(r[ix])
                classes = self._classBuilderForContext(context)
                if not classes:
                    return None
                classDefBuilders.append(classes)
            return classDefBuilders

        def _classBuilderForContext(self, context):
            classdefbuilder = ClassDefBuilder(useClass0=False)
            for position in context:
                for glyphset in position:
                    glyphs = set(glyphset)
                    if not classdefbuilder.canAdd(glyphs):
                        return None
                    classdefbuilder.add(glyphs)
            return classdefbuilder

    class ChainContextualBuilder(LookupBuilder):
        def equals(self, other):
            return LookupBuilder.equals(self, other) and self.rules == other.rules

        def rulesets(self):
            # Return a list of ChainContextRuleset objects, taking explicit
            # subtable breaks into account
            ruleset = [ChainContextualRuleset()]
            for rule in self.rules:
                if rule.is_subtable_break:
                    ruleset.append(ChainContextualRuleset())
                    continue
                ruleset[-1].addRule(rule)
            # Squish any empty subtables
            return [x for x in ruleset if len(x.rules) > 0]

        def getCompiledSize_(self, subtables):
            if not subtables:
                return 0
            # We need to make a copy here because compiling
            # modifies the subtable (finalizing formats etc.)
            table = self.buildLookup_(copy.deepcopy(subtables))
            w = OTTableWriter()
            table.compile(w, self.font)
            size = len(w.getAllData())
            return size

        def build(self):
            """Build the lookup.

            Returns:
                An ``otTables.Lookup`` object representing the chained
                contextual positioning lookup.
            """
            subtables = []

            rulesets = self.rulesets()
            chaining = any(ruleset.hasPrefixOrSuffix for ruleset in rulesets)

            # https://github.com/fonttools/fonttools/issues/2539
            #
            # Unfortunately, as of 2022-03-07, Apple's CoreText renderer does not
            # correctly process GPOS7 lookups, so for now we force contextual
            # positioning lookups to be chaining (GPOS8).
            #
            # This seems to be fixed as of macOS 13.2, but we keep disabling this
            # for now until we are no longer concerned about old macOS versions.
            # But we allow people to opt-out of this with the config key below.
            write_gpos7 = self.font.cfg.get("fontTools.otlLib.builder:WRITE_GPOS7")
            # horrible separation of concerns breach
            if not write_gpos7 and self.subtable_type == "Pos":
                chaining = True

            for ruleset in rulesets:
                # Determine format strategy. We try to build formats 1, 2 and 3
                # subtables and then work out which is best. candidates list holds
                # the subtables in each format for this ruleset (including a dummy
                # "format 0" to make the addressing match the format numbers).

                # We can always build a format 3 lookup by accumulating each of
                # the rules into a list, so start with that.
                candidates = [None, None, None, []]
                for rule in ruleset.rules:
                    candidates[3].append(self.buildFormat3Subtable(rule, chaining))

                # Can we express the whole ruleset as a format 2 subtable?
                classdefs = ruleset.format2ClassDefs()
                if classdefs:
                    candidates[2] = [
                        self.buildFormat2Subtable(ruleset, classdefs, chaining)
                    ]

                if not ruleset.hasAnyGlyphClasses:
                    candidates[1] = [self.buildFormat1Subtable(ruleset, chaining)]

                candidates_by_size = []
                for i in [1, 2, 3]:
                    if candidates[i]:
                        try:
                            size = self.getCompiledSize_(candidates[i])
                        except OTLOffsetOverflowError as e:
                            log.warning(
                                "Contextual format %i at %s overflowed (%s)"
                                % (i, str(self.location), e)
                            )
                        else:
                            candidates_by_size.append((size, candidates[i]))

                if not candidates_by_size:
                    raise OpenTypeLibError("All candidates overflowed", self.location)

                _min_size, winner = min(candidates_by_size, key=lambda x: x[0])
                subtables.extend(winner)

            # If we are not chaining, lookup type will be automatically fixed by
            # buildLookup_
            return self.buildLookup_(subtables)

        def buildFormat1Subtable(self, ruleset, chaining=True):
            st = self.newSubtable_(chaining=chaining)
            st.Format = 1
            st.populateDefaults()
            coverage = set()
            rulesetsByFirstGlyph = {}
            ruleAttr = self.ruleAttr_(format=1, chaining=chaining)

            for rule in ruleset.rules:
                ruleAsSubtable = self.newRule_(format=1, chaining=chaining)

                if chaining:
                    ruleAsSubtable.BacktrackGlyphCount = len(rule.prefix)
                    ruleAsSubtable.LookAheadGlyphCount = len(rule.suffix)
                    ruleAsSubtable.Backtrack = [list(x)[0] for x in reversed(rule.prefix)]
                    ruleAsSubtable.LookAhead = [list(x)[0] for x in rule.suffix]

                    ruleAsSubtable.InputGlyphCount = len(rule.glyphs)
                else:
                    ruleAsSubtable.GlyphCount = len(rule.glyphs)

                ruleAsSubtable.Input = [list(x)[0] for x in rule.glyphs[1:]]

                self.buildLookupList(rule, ruleAsSubtable)

                firstGlyph = list(rule.glyphs[0])[0]
                if firstGlyph not in rulesetsByFirstGlyph:
                    coverage.add(firstGlyph)
                    rulesetsByFirstGlyph[firstGlyph] = []
                rulesetsByFirstGlyph[firstGlyph].append(ruleAsSubtable)

            st.Coverage = buildCoverage(coverage, self.glyphMap)
            ruleSets = []
            for g in st.Coverage.glyphs:
                ruleSet = self.newRuleSet_(format=1, chaining=chaining)
                setattr(ruleSet, ruleAttr, rulesetsByFirstGlyph[g])
                setattr(ruleSet, f"{ruleAttr}Count", len(rulesetsByFirstGlyph[g]))
                ruleSets.append(ruleSet)

            setattr(st, self.ruleSetAttr_(format=1, chaining=chaining), ruleSets)
            setattr(
                st, self.ruleSetAttr_(format=1, chaining=chaining) + "Count", len(ruleSets)
            )

            return st

        def buildFormat2Subtable(self, ruleset, classdefs, chaining=True):
            st = self.newSubtable_(chaining=chaining)
            st.Format = 2
            st.populateDefaults()

            if chaining:
                (
                    st.BacktrackClassDef,
                    st.InputClassDef,
                    st.LookAheadClassDef,
                ) = [c.build() for c in classdefs]
            else:
                st.ClassDef = classdefs[1].build()

            inClasses = classdefs[1].classes()

            classSets = []
            for _ in inClasses:
                classSet = self.newRuleSet_(format=2, chaining=chaining)
                classSets.append(classSet)

            coverage = set()
            classRuleAttr = self.ruleAttr_(format=2, chaining=chaining)

            for rule in ruleset.rules:
                ruleAsSubtable = self.newRule_(format=2, chaining=chaining)
                if chaining:
                    ruleAsSubtable.BacktrackGlyphCount = len(rule.prefix)
                    ruleAsSubtable.LookAheadGlyphCount = len(rule.suffix)
                    # The glyphs in the rule may be list, tuple, odict_keys...
                    # Order is not important anyway because they are guaranteed
                    # to be members of the same class.
                    ruleAsSubtable.Backtrack = [
                        st.BacktrackClassDef.classDefs[list(x)[0]]
                        for x in reversed(rule.prefix)
                    ]
                    ruleAsSubtable.LookAhead = [
                        st.LookAheadClassDef.classDefs[list(x)[0]] for x in rule.suffix
                    ]

                    ruleAsSubtable.InputGlyphCount = len(rule.glyphs)
                    ruleAsSubtable.Input = [
                        st.InputClassDef.classDefs[list(x)[0]] for x in rule.glyphs[1:]
                    ]
                    setForThisRule = classSets[
                        st.InputClassDef.classDefs[list(rule.glyphs[0])[0]]
                    ]
                else:
                    ruleAsSubtable.GlyphCount = len(rule.glyphs)
                    ruleAsSubtable.Class = [  # The spec calls this InputSequence
                        st.ClassDef.classDefs[list(x)[0]] for x in rule.glyphs[1:]
                    ]
                    setForThisRule = classSets[
                        st.ClassDef.classDefs[list(rule.glyphs[0])[0]]
                    ]

                self.buildLookupList(rule, ruleAsSubtable)
                coverage |= set(rule.glyphs[0])

                getattr(setForThisRule, classRuleAttr).append(ruleAsSubtable)
                setattr(
                    setForThisRule,
                    f"{classRuleAttr}Count",
                    getattr(setForThisRule, f"{classRuleAttr}Count") + 1,
                )
            for i, classSet in enumerate(classSets):
                if not getattr(classSet, classRuleAttr):
                    # class sets can be null so replace nop sets with None
                    classSets[i] = None
            setattr(st, self.ruleSetAttr_(format=2, chaining=chaining), classSets)
            setattr(
                st, self.ruleSetAttr_(format=2, chaining=chaining) + "Count", len(classSets)
            )
            st.Coverage = buildCoverage(coverage, self.glyphMap)
            return st

        def buildFormat3Subtable(self, rule, chaining=True):
            st = self.newSubtable_(chaining=chaining)
            st.Format = 3
            if chaining:
                self.setBacktrackCoverage_(rule.prefix, st)
                self.setLookAheadCoverage_(rule.suffix, st)
                self.setInputCoverage_(rule.glyphs, st)
            else:
                self.setCoverage_(rule.glyphs, st)
            self.buildLookupList(rule, st)
            return st

        def buildLookupList(self, rule, st):
            for sequenceIndex, lookupList in enumerate(rule.lookups):
                if lookupList is not None:
                    if not isinstance(lookupList, list):
                        # Can happen with synthesised lookups
                        lookupList = [lookupList]
                    for l in lookupList:
                        if l.lookup_index is None:
                            if isinstance(self, ChainContextPosBuilder):
                                other = "substitution"
                            else:
                                other = "positioning"
                            raise OpenTypeLibError(
                                "Missing index of the specified "
                                f"lookup, might be a {other} lookup",
                                self.location,
                            )
                        rec = self.newLookupRecord_(st)
                        rec.SequenceIndex = sequenceIndex
                        rec.LookupListIndex = l.lookup_index

        def add_subtable_break(self, location):
            self.rules.append(
                ChainContextualRule(
                    self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_,
                    self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_,
                    self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_,
                    [self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_],
                )
            )

        def newSubtable_(self, chaining=True):
            subtablename = f"Context{self.subtable_type}"
            if chaining:
                subtablename = "Chain" + subtablename
            st = getattr(ot, subtablename)()  # ot.ChainContextPos()/ot.ChainSubst()/etc.
            setattr(st, f"{self.subtable_type}Count", 0)
            setattr(st, f"{self.subtable_type}LookupRecord", [])
            return st

        # Format 1 and format 2 GSUB5/GSUB6/GPOS7/GPOS8 rulesets and rules form a family:
        #
        #       format 1 ruleset      format 1 rule      format 2 ruleset      format 2 rule
        # GSUB5 SubRuleSet            SubRule            SubClassSet           SubClassRule
        # GSUB6 ChainSubRuleSet       ChainSubRule       ChainSubClassSet      ChainSubClassRule
        # GPOS7 PosRuleSet            PosRule            PosClassSet           PosClassRule
        # GPOS8 ChainPosRuleSet       ChainPosRule       ChainPosClassSet      ChainPosClassRule
        #
        # The following functions generate the attribute names and subtables according
        # to this naming convention.
        def ruleSetAttr_(self, format=1, chaining=True):
            if format == 1:
                formatType = "Rule"
            elif format == 2:
                formatType = "Class"
            else:
                raise AssertionError(formatType)
            subtablename = f"{self.subtable_type[0:3]}{formatType}Set"  # Sub, not Subst.
            if chaining:
                subtablename = "Chain" + subtablename
            return subtablename

        def ruleAttr_(self, format=1, chaining=True):
            if format == 1:
                formatType = ""
            elif format == 2:
                formatType = "Class"
            else:
                raise AssertionError(formatType)
            subtablename = f"{self.subtable_type[0:3]}{formatType}Rule"  # Sub, not Subst.
            if chaining:
                subtablename = "Chain" + subtablename
            return subtablename

        def newRuleSet_(self, format=1, chaining=True):
            st = getattr(
                ot, self.ruleSetAttr_(format, chaining)
            )()  # ot.ChainPosRuleSet()/ot.SubRuleSet()/etc.
            st.populateDefaults()
            return st

        def newRule_(self, format=1, chaining=True):
            st = getattr(
                ot, self.ruleAttr_(format, chaining)
            )()  # ot.ChainPosClassRule()/ot.SubClassRule()/etc.
            st.populateDefaults()
            return st

        def attachSubtableWithCount_(
            self, st, subtable_name, count_name, existing=None, index=None, chaining=False
        ):
            if chaining:
                subtable_name = "Chain" + subtable_name
                count_name = "Chain" + count_name

            if not hasattr(st, count_name):
                setattr(st, count_name, 0)
                setattr(st, subtable_name, [])

            if existing:
                new_subtable = existing
            else:
                # Create a new, empty subtable from otTables
                new_subtable = getattr(ot, subtable_name)()

            setattr(st, count_name, getattr(st, count_name) + 1)

            if index:
                getattr(st, subtable_name).insert(index, new_subtable)
            else:
                getattr(st, subtable_name).append(new_subtable)

            return new_subtable

        def newLookupRecord_(self, st):
            return self.attachSubtableWithCount_(
                st,
                f"{self.subtable_type}LookupRecord",
                f"{self.subtable_type}Count",
                chaining=False,
            )  # Oddly, it isn't ChainSubstLookupRecord

    class ChainContextPosBuilder(ChainContextualBuilder):
        """Builds a Chained Contextual Positioning (GPOS8) lookup.

        Users are expected to manually add rules to the ``rules`` attribute after
        the object has been initialized, e.g.::

            # pos [A B] [C D] x' lookup lu1 y' z' lookup lu2 E;

            prefix  = [ ["A", "B"], ["C", "D"] ]
            suffix  = [ ["E"] ]
            glyphs  = [ ["x"], ["y"], ["z"] ]
            lookups = [ [lu1], None,  [lu2] ]
            builder.rules.append( (prefix, glyphs, suffix, lookups) )

        Attributes:
            font (``fontTools.TTLib.TTFont``): A font object.
            location: A string or tuple representing the location in the original
                source which produced this lookup.
            rules: A list of tuples representing the rules in this lookup.
            lookupflag (int): The lookup's flag
            markFilterSet: Either ``None`` if no mark filtering set is used, or
                an integer representing the filtering set to be used for this
                lookup. If a mark filtering set is provided,
                `LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET` will be set on the lookup's
                flags.
        """

        def __init__(self, font, location):
            LookupBuilder.__init__(self, font, location, "GPOS", 8)
            self.rules = []
            self.subtable_type = "Pos"

        def find_chainable_single_pos(self, lookups, glyphs, value):
            """Helper for add_single_pos_chained_()"""
            res = None
            for lookup in lookups[::-1]:
                if lookup == self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_:
                    return res
                if isinstance(lookup, SinglePosBuilder) and all(
                    lookup.can_add(glyph, value) for glyph in glyphs
                ):
                    res = lookup
            return res

    class ChainContextSubstBuilder(ChainContextualBuilder):
        """Builds a Chained Contextual Substitution (GSUB6) lookup.

        Users are expected to manually add rules to the ``rules`` attribute after
        the object has been initialized, e.g.::

            # sub [A B] [C D] x' lookup lu1 y' z' lookup lu2 E;

            prefix  = [ ["A", "B"], ["C", "D"] ]
            suffix  = [ ["E"] ]
            glyphs  = [ ["x"], ["y"], ["z"] ]
            lookups = [ [lu1], None,  [lu2] ]
            builder.rules.append( (prefix, glyphs, suffix, lookups) )

        Attributes:
            font (``fontTools.TTLib.TTFont``): A font object.
            location: A string or tuple representing the location in the original
                source which produced this lookup.
            rules: A list of tuples representing the rules in this lookup.
            lookupflag (int): The lookup's flag
            markFilterSet: Either ``None`` if no mark filtering set is used, or
                an integer representing the filtering set to be used for this
                lookup. If a mark filtering set is provided,
                `LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET` will be set on the lookup's
                flags.
        """

        def __init__(self, font, location):
            LookupBuilder.__init__(self, font, location, "GSUB", 6)
            self.rules = []  # (prefix, input, suffix, lookups)
            self.subtable_type = "Subst"

        def getAlternateGlyphs(self):
            result = {}
            for rule in self.rules:
                if rule.is_subtable_break:
                    continue
                for lookups in rule.lookups:
                    if not isinstance(lookups, list):
                        lookups = [lookups]
                    for lookup in lookups:
                        if lookup is not None:
                            alts = lookup.getAlternateGlyphs()
                            for glyph, replacements in alts.items():
                                alts_for_glyph = result.setdefault(glyph, [])
                                alts_for_glyph.extend(
                                    g for g in replacements if g not in alts_for_glyph
                                )
            return result

        def find_chainable_subst(self, mapping, builder_class):
            """Helper for add_{single,multi}_subst_chained_()"""
            res = None
            for rule in self.rules[::-1]:
                if rule.is_subtable_break:
                    return res
                for sub in rule.lookups:
                    if isinstance(sub, builder_class) and not any(
                        g in mapping and mapping[g] != sub.mapping[g] for g in sub.mapping
                    ):
                        res = sub
            return res

        def find_chainable_ligature_subst(self, glyphs, replacement):
            """Helper for add_ligature_subst_chained_()"""
            res = None
            for rule in self.rules[::-1]:
                if rule.is_subtable_break:
                    return res
                for sub in rule.lookups:
                    if not isinstance(sub, LigatureSubstBuilder):
                        continue
                    if all(
                        sub.ligatures.get(seq, replacement) == replacement
                        for seq in itertools.product(*glyphs)
                    ):
                        res = sub
            return res

    class LigatureSubstBuilder(LookupBuilder):
        """Builds a Ligature Substitution (GSUB4) lookup.

        Users are expected to manually add ligatures to the ``ligatures``
        attribute after the object has been initialized, e.g.::

            # sub f i by f_i;
            builder.ligatures[("f","f","i")] = "f_f_i"

        Attributes:
            font (``fontTools.TTLib.TTFont``): A font object.
            location: A string or tuple representing the location in the original
                source which produced this lookup.
            ligatures: An ordered dictionary mapping a tuple of glyph names to the
                ligature glyphname.
            lookupflag (int): The lookup's flag
            markFilterSet: Either ``None`` if no mark filtering set is used, or
                an integer representing the filtering set to be used for this
                lookup. If a mark filtering set is provided,
                `LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET` will be set on the lookup's
                flags.
        """

        def __init__(self, font, location):
            LookupBuilder.__init__(self, font, location, "GSUB", 4)
            self.ligatures = OrderedDict()  # {('f','f','i'): 'f_f_i'}

        def equals(self, other):
            return LookupBuilder.equals(self, other) and self.ligatures == other.ligatures

        def build(self):
            """Build the lookup.

            Returns:
                An ``otTables.Lookup`` object representing the ligature
                substitution lookup.
            """
            subtables = self.build_subst_subtables(
                self.ligatures, buildLigatureSubstSubtable
            )
            return self.buildLookup_(subtables)

        def getAlternateGlyphs(self):
            # https://github.com/fonttools/fonttools/issues/3845
            return {
                components[0]: [ligature]
                for components, ligature in self.ligatures.items()
                if len(components) == 1
            }

        def add_subtable_break(self, location):
            self.ligatures[(self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_, location)] = self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_

    class MultipleSubstBuilder(LookupBuilder):
        """Builds a Multiple Substitution (GSUB2) lookup.

        Users are expected to manually add substitutions to the ``mapping``
        attribute after the object has been initialized, e.g.::

            # sub uni06C0 by uni06D5.fina hamza.above;
            builder.mapping["uni06C0"] = [ "uni06D5.fina", "hamza.above"]

        Attributes:
            font (``fontTools.TTLib.TTFont``): A font object.
            location: A string or tuple representing the location in the original
                source which produced this lookup.
            mapping: An ordered dictionary mapping a glyph name to a list of
                substituted glyph names.
            lookupflag (int): The lookup's flag
            markFilterSet: Either ``None`` if no mark filtering set is used, or
                an integer representing the filtering set to be used for this
                lookup. If a mark filtering set is provided,
                `LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET` will be set on the lookup's
                flags.
        """

        def __init__(self, font, location):
            LookupBuilder.__init__(self, font, location, "GSUB", 2)
            self.mapping = OrderedDict()

        def equals(self, other):
            return LookupBuilder.equals(self, other) and self.mapping == other.mapping

        def build(self):
            subtables = self.build_subst_subtables(self.mapping, buildMultipleSubstSubtable)
            return self.buildLookup_(subtables)

        def getAlternateGlyphs(self):
            # https://github.com/fonttools/fonttools/issues/3845
            return {
                glyph: replacements
                for glyph, replacements in self.mapping.items()
                if len(replacements) == 1
            }

        def add_subtable_break(self, location):
            self.mapping[(self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_, location)] = self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_

    class CursivePosBuilder(LookupBuilder):
        """Builds a Cursive Positioning (GPOS3) lookup.

        Attributes:
            font (``fontTools.TTLib.TTFont``): A font object.
            location: A string or tuple representing the location in the original
                source which produced this lookup.
            attachments: An ordered dictionary mapping a glyph name to a two-element
                tuple of ``otTables.Anchor`` objects.
            lookupflag (int): The lookup's flag
            markFilterSet: Either ``None`` if no mark filtering set is used, or
                an integer representing the filtering set to be used for this
                lookup. If a mark filtering set is provided,
                `LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET` will be set on the lookup's
                flags.
        """

        def __init__(self, font, location):
            LookupBuilder.__init__(self, font, location, "GPOS", 3)
            self.attachments = {}

        def equals(self, other):
            return (
                LookupBuilder.equals(self, other) and self.attachments == other.attachments
            )

        def add_attachment(self, location, glyphs, entryAnchor, exitAnchor):
            """Adds attachment information to the cursive positioning lookup.

            Args:
                location: A string or tuple representing the location in the
                    original source which produced this lookup. (Unused.)
                glyphs: A list of glyph names sharing these entry and exit
                    anchor locations.
                entryAnchor: A ``otTables.Anchor`` object representing the
                    entry anchor, or ``None`` if no entry anchor is present.
                exitAnchor: A ``otTables.Anchor`` object representing the
                    exit anchor, or ``None`` if no exit anchor is present.
            """
            for glyph in glyphs:
                self.attachments[glyph] = (entryAnchor, exitAnchor)

        def build(self):
            """Build the lookup.

            Returns:
                An ``otTables.Lookup`` object representing the cursive
                positioning lookup.
            """
            attachments = [{}]
            for key in self.attachments:
                if key[0] == self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_:
                    attachments.append({})
                else:
                    attachments[-1][key] = self.attachments[key]
            subtables = [buildCursivePosSubtable(s, self.glyphMap) for s in attachments]
            return self.buildLookup_(subtables)

        def add_subtable_break(self, location):
            self.attachments[(self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_, location)] = (
                self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_,
                self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_,
            )

    class MarkBasePosBuilder(LookupBuilder):
        """Builds a Mark-To-Base Positioning (GPOS4) lookup.

        Users are expected to manually add marks and bases to the ``marks``
        and ``bases`` attributes after the object has been initialized, e.g.::

            builder.marks["acute"]   = (0, a1)
            builder.marks["grave"]   = (0, a1)
            builder.marks["cedilla"] = (1, a2)
            builder.bases["a"] = {0: a3, 1: a5}
            builder.bases["b"] = {0: a4, 1: a5}

        Attributes:
            font (``fontTools.TTLib.TTFont``): A font object.
            location: A string or tuple representing the location in the original
                source which produced this lookup.
            marks: An dictionary mapping a glyph name to a two-element
                tuple containing a mark class ID and ``otTables.Anchor`` object.
            bases: An dictionary mapping a glyph name to a dictionary of
                mark class IDs and ``otTables.Anchor`` object.
            lookupflag (int): The lookup's flag
            markFilterSet: Either ``None`` if no mark filtering set is used, or
                an integer representing the filtering set to be used for this
                lookup. If a mark filtering set is provided,
                `LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET` will be set on the lookup's
                flags.
        """

        def __init__(self, font, location):
            LookupBuilder.__init__(self, font, location, "GPOS", 4)
            self.marks = {}  # glyphName -> (markClassName, anchor)
            self.bases = {}  # glyphName -> {markClassName: anchor}
            self.subtables_ = []

        def get_subtables_(self):
            subtables_ = self.subtables_
            if self.bases or self.marks:
                subtables_.append((self.marks, self.bases))
            return subtables_

        def equals(self, other):
            return (
                LookupBuilder.equals(self, other)
                and self.get_subtables_() == other.get_subtables_()
            )

        def inferGlyphClasses(self):
            result = {}
            for marks, bases in self.get_subtables_():
                result.update({glyph: 1 for glyph in bases})
                result.update({glyph: 3 for glyph in marks})
            return result

        def build(self):
            """Build the lookup.

            Returns:
                An ``otTables.Lookup`` object representing the mark-to-base
                positioning lookup.
            """
            subtables = []
            for subtable in self.get_subtables_():
                markClasses = self.buildMarkClasses_(subtable[0])
                marks = {}
                for mark, (mc, anchor) in subtable[0].items():
                    if mc not in markClasses:
                        raise ValueError(
                            "Mark class %s not found for mark glyph %s" % (mc, mark)
                        )
                    marks[mark] = (markClasses[mc], anchor)
                bases = {}
                for glyph, anchors in subtable[1].items():
                    bases[glyph] = {}
                    for mc, anchor in anchors.items():
                        if mc not in markClasses:
                            raise ValueError(
                                "Mark class %s not found for base glyph %s" % (mc, glyph)
                            )
                        bases[glyph][markClasses[mc]] = anchor
                subtables.append(buildMarkBasePosSubtable(marks, bases, self.glyphMap))
            return self.buildLookup_(subtables)

        def add_subtable_break(self, location):
            self.subtables_.append((self.marks, self.bases))
            self.marks = {}
            self.bases = {}

    class MarkLigPosBuilder(LookupBuilder):
        """Builds a Mark-To-Ligature Positioning (GPOS5) lookup.

        Users are expected to manually add marks and bases to the ``marks``
        and ``ligatures`` attributes after the object has been initialized, e.g.::

            builder.marks["acute"]   = (0, a1)
            builder.marks["grave"]   = (0, a1)
            builder.marks["cedilla"] = (1, a2)
            builder.ligatures["f_i"] = [
                { 0: a3, 1: a5 }, # f
                { 0: a4, 1: a5 }  # i
            ]

        Attributes:
            font (``fontTools.TTLib.TTFont``): A font object.
            location: A string or tuple representing the location in the original
                source which produced this lookup.
            marks: An dictionary mapping a glyph name to a two-element
                tuple containing a mark class ID and ``otTables.Anchor`` object.
            ligatures: An dictionary mapping a glyph name to an array with one
                element for each ligature component. Each array element should be
                a dictionary mapping mark class IDs to ``otTables.Anchor`` objects.
            lookupflag (int): The lookup's flag
            markFilterSet: Either ``None`` if no mark filtering set is used, or
                an integer representing the filtering set to be used for this
                lookup. If a mark filtering set is provided,
                `LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET` will be set on the lookup's
                flags.
        """

        def __init__(self, font, location):
            LookupBuilder.__init__(self, font, location, "GPOS", 5)
            self.marks = {}  # glyphName -> (markClassName, anchor)
            self.ligatures = {}  # glyphName -> [{markClassName: anchor}, ...]
            self.subtables_ = []

        def get_subtables_(self):
            subtables_ = self.subtables_
            if self.ligatures or self.marks:
                subtables_.append((self.marks, self.ligatures))
            return subtables_

        def equals(self, other):
            return (
                LookupBuilder.equals(self, other)
                and self.get_subtables_() == other.get_subtables_()
            )

        def inferGlyphClasses(self):
            result = {}
            for marks, ligatures in self.get_subtables_():
                result.update({glyph: 2 for glyph in ligatures})
                result.update({glyph: 3 for glyph in marks})
            return result

        def build(self):
            """Build the lookup.

            Returns:
                An ``otTables.Lookup`` object representing the mark-to-ligature
                positioning lookup.
            """
            subtables = []
            for subtable in self.get_subtables_():
                markClasses = self.buildMarkClasses_(subtable[0])
                marks = {
                    mark: (markClasses[mc], anchor)
                    for mark, (mc, anchor) in subtable[0].items()
                }
                ligs = {}
                for lig, components in subtable[1].items():
                    ligs[lig] = []
                    for c in components:
                        ligs[lig].append({markClasses[mc]: a for mc, a in c.items()})
                subtables.append(buildMarkLigPosSubtable(marks, ligs, self.glyphMap))
            return self.buildLookup_(subtables)

        def add_subtable_break(self, location):
            self.subtables_.append((self.marks, self.ligatures))
            self.marks = {}
            self.ligatures = {}

    class MarkMarkPosBuilder(LookupBuilder):
        """Builds a Mark-To-Mark Positioning (GPOS6) lookup.

        Users are expected to manually add marks and bases to the ``marks``
        and ``baseMarks`` attributes after the object has been initialized, e.g.::

            builder.marks["acute"]     = (0, a1)
            builder.marks["grave"]     = (0, a1)
            builder.marks["cedilla"]   = (1, a2)
            builder.baseMarks["acute"] = {0: a3}

        Attributes:
            font (``fontTools.TTLib.TTFont``): A font object.
            location: A string or tuple representing the location in the original
                source which produced this lookup.
            marks: An dictionary mapping a glyph name to a two-element
                tuple containing a mark class ID and ``otTables.Anchor`` object.
            baseMarks: An dictionary mapping a glyph name to a dictionary
                containing one item: a mark class ID and a ``otTables.Anchor`` object.
            lookupflag (int): The lookup's flag
            markFilterSet: Either ``None`` if no mark filtering set is used, or
                an integer representing the filtering set to be used for this
                lookup. If a mark filtering set is provided,
                `LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET` will be set on the lookup's
                flags.
        """

        def __init__(self, font, location):
            LookupBuilder.__init__(self, font, location, "GPOS", 6)
            self.marks = {}  # glyphName -> (markClassName, anchor)
            self.baseMarks = {}  # glyphName -> {markClassName: anchor}
            self.subtables_ = []

        def get_subtables_(self):
            subtables_ = self.subtables_
            if self.baseMarks or self.marks:
                subtables_.append((self.marks, self.baseMarks))
            return subtables_

        def equals(self, other):
            return (
                LookupBuilder.equals(self, other)
                and self.get_subtables_() == other.get_subtables_()
            )

        def inferGlyphClasses(self):
            result = {}
            for marks, baseMarks in self.get_subtables_():
                result.update({glyph: 3 for glyph in baseMarks})
                result.update({glyph: 3 for glyph in marks})
            return result

        def build(self):
            """Build the lookup.

            Returns:
                An ``otTables.Lookup`` object representing the mark-to-mark
                positioning lookup.
            """
            subtables = []
            for subtable in self.get_subtables_():
                markClasses = self.buildMarkClasses_(subtable[0])
                markClassList = sorted(markClasses.keys(), key=markClasses.get)
                marks = {
                    mark: (markClasses[mc], anchor)
                    for mark, (mc, anchor) in subtable[0].items()
                }

                st = ot.MarkMarkPos()
                st.Format = 1
                st.ClassCount = len(markClasses)
                st.Mark1Coverage = buildCoverage(marks, self.glyphMap)
                st.Mark2Coverage = buildCoverage(subtable[1], self.glyphMap)
                st.Mark1Array = buildMarkArray(marks, self.glyphMap)
                st.Mark2Array = ot.Mark2Array()
                st.Mark2Array.Mark2Count = len(st.Mark2Coverage.glyphs)
                st.Mark2Array.Mark2Record = []
                for base in st.Mark2Coverage.glyphs:
                    anchors = [subtable[1][base].get(mc) for mc in markClassList]
                    st.Mark2Array.Mark2Record.append(buildMark2Record(anchors))
                subtables.append(st)
            return self.buildLookup_(subtables)

        def add_subtable_break(self, location):
            self.subtables_.append((self.marks, self.baseMarks))
            self.marks = {}
            self.baseMarks = {}

    class ReverseChainSingleSubstBuilder(LookupBuilder):
        """Builds a Reverse Chaining Contextual Single Substitution (GSUB8) lookup.

        Users are expected to manually add substitutions to the ``substitutions``
        attribute after the object has been initialized, e.g.::

            # reversesub [a e n] d' by d.alt;
            prefix = [ ["a", "e", "n"] ]
            suffix = []
            mapping = { "d": "d.alt" }
            builder.substitutions.append( (prefix, suffix, mapping) )

        Attributes:
            font (``fontTools.TTLib.TTFont``): A font object.
            location: A string or tuple representing the location in the original
                source which produced this lookup.
            substitutions: A three-element tuple consisting of a prefix sequence,
                a suffix sequence, and a dictionary of single substitutions.
            lookupflag (int): The lookup's flag
            markFilterSet: Either ``None`` if no mark filtering set is used, or
                an integer representing the filtering set to be used for this
                lookup. If a mark filtering set is provided,
                `LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET` will be set on the lookup's
                flags.
        """

        def __init__(self, font, location):
            LookupBuilder.__init__(self, font, location, "GSUB", 8)
            self.rules = []  # (prefix, suffix, mapping)

        def equals(self, other):
            return LookupBuilder.equals(self, other) and self.rules == other.rules

        def build(self):
            """Build the lookup.

            Returns:
                An ``otTables.Lookup`` object representing the chained
                contextual substitution lookup.
            """
            subtables = []
            for prefix, suffix, mapping in self.rules:
                st = ot.ReverseChainSingleSubst()
                st.Format = 1
                self.setBacktrackCoverage_(prefix, st)
                self.setLookAheadCoverage_(suffix, st)
                st.Coverage = buildCoverage(mapping.keys(), self.glyphMap)
                st.GlyphCount = len(mapping)
                st.Substitute = [mapping[g] for g in st.Coverage.glyphs]
                subtables.append(st)
            return self.buildLookup_(subtables)

        def add_subtable_break(self, location):
            # Nothing to do here, each substitution is in its own subtable.
            pass

    class AnySubstBuilder(LookupBuilder):
        """A temporary builder for Single, Multiple, or Ligature substitution lookup.

        Users are expected to manually add substitutions to the ``mapping``
        attribute after the object has been initialized, e.g.::

            # sub x by y;
            builder.mapping[("x",)] = ("y",)
            # sub a by b c;
            builder.mapping[("a",)] = ("b", "c")
            # sub f i by f_i;
            builder.mapping[("f", "i")] = ("f_i",)

        Then call `promote_lookup_type()` to convert this builder into the
        appropriate type of substitution lookup builder. This would promote single
        substitutions to either multiple or ligature substitutions, depending on the
        rest of the rules in the mapping.

        Attributes:
            font (``fontTools.TTLib.TTFont``): A font object.
            location: A string or tuple representing the location in the original
                source which produced this lookup.
            mapping: An ordered dictionary mapping a tuple of glyph names to another
                tuple of glyph names.
            lookupflag (int): The lookup's flag
            markFilterSet: Either ``None`` if no mark filtering set is used, or
                an integer representing the filtering set to be used for this
                lookup. If a mark filtering set is provided,
                `LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET` will be set on the lookup's
                flags.
        """

        def __init__(self, font, location):
            LookupBuilder.__init__(self, font, location, "GSUB", 0)
            self.mapping = OrderedDict()

        def _add_to_single_subst(self, builder, key, value):
            if key[0] != self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_:
                key = key[0]
            builder.mapping[key] = value[0]

        def _add_to_multiple_subst(self, builder, key, value):
            if key[0] != self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_:
                key = key[0]
            builder.mapping[key] = value

        def _add_to_ligature_subst(self, builder, key, value):
            builder.ligatures[key] = value[0]

        def can_add_mapping(self, mapping) -> bool:
            if mapping is None:
                return True
            # single sub rules can be treated as (degenerate) liga-or-multi sub
            # rules, but multi and liga sub rules themselves have incompatible
            # representations. It is uncommon that these are in the same set of
            # rules, but it happens.
            is_multi = any(len(v) > 1 for v in mapping.values())
            is_liga = any(len(k) > 1 for k in mapping.keys())

            has_existing_multi = False
            has_existing_liga = False

            for k, v in self.mapping.items():
                if k[0] == self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_:
                    continue
                if len(k) > 1:
                    has_existing_liga = True
                if len(v) > 1:
                    has_existing_multi = True

            can_reuse = not (has_existing_multi and is_liga) and not (
                has_existing_liga and is_multi
            )
            return can_reuse

        def promote_lookup_type(self, is_named_lookup):
            # https://github.com/fonttools/fonttools/issues/612
            # A multiple substitution may have a single destination, in which case
            # it will look just like a single substitution. So if there are both
            # multiple and single substitutions, upgrade all the single ones to
            # multiple substitutions. Similarly, a ligature substitution may have a
            # single source glyph, so if there are both ligature and single
            # substitutions, upgrade all the single ones to ligature substitutions.
            builder_classes = []
            for key, value in self.mapping.items():
                if key[0] == self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_:
                    builder_classes.append(None)
                elif len(key) == 1 and len(value) == 1:
                    builder_classes.append(SingleSubstBuilder)
                elif len(key) == 1 and len(value) != 1:
                    builder_classes.append(MultipleSubstBuilder)
                elif len(key) > 1 and len(value) == 1:
                    builder_classes.append(LigatureSubstBuilder)
                else:
                    assert False, "Should not happen"

            has_multiple = any(b is MultipleSubstBuilder for b in builder_classes)
            has_ligature = any(b is LigatureSubstBuilder for b in builder_classes)

            # If we have mixed single and multiple substitutions,
            # upgrade all single substitutions to multiple substitutions.
            to_multiple = has_multiple and not has_ligature

            # If we have mixed single and ligature substitutions,
            # upgrade all single substitutions to ligature substitutions.
            to_ligature = has_ligature and not has_multiple

            # If we have only single substitutions, we can keep them as is.
            to_single = not has_ligature and not has_multiple

            ret = []
            if to_single:
                builder = SingleSubstBuilder(self.font, self.location)
                for key, value in self.mapping.items():
                    self._add_to_single_subst(builder, key, value)
                ret = [builder]
            elif to_multiple:
                builder = MultipleSubstBuilder(self.font, self.location)
                for key, value in self.mapping.items():
                    self._add_to_multiple_subst(builder, key, value)
                ret = [builder]
            elif to_ligature:
                builder = LigatureSubstBuilder(self.font, self.location)
                for key, value in self.mapping.items():
                    self._add_to_ligature_subst(builder, key, value)
                ret = [builder]
            elif is_named_lookup:
                # This is a named lookup with mixed substitutions that can’t be promoted,
                # since we can’t split it into multiple lookups, we return None here to
                # signal that to the caller
                return None
            else:
                curr_builder = None
                for builder_class, (key, value) in zip(
                    builder_classes, self.mapping.items()
                ):
                    if curr_builder is None or type(curr_builder) is not builder_class:
                        curr_builder = builder_class(self.font, self.location)
                        ret.append(curr_builder)
                    if builder_class is SingleSubstBuilder:
                        self._add_to_single_subst(curr_builder, key, value)
                    elif builder_class is MultipleSubstBuilder:
                        self._add_to_multiple_subst(curr_builder, key, value)
                    elif builder_class is LigatureSubstBuilder:
                        self._add_to_ligature_subst(curr_builder, key, value)
                    else:
                        assert False, "Should not happen"

            for builder in ret:
                builder.extension = self.extension
                builder.lookupflag = self.lookupflag
                builder.markFilterSet = self.markFilterSet
            return ret

        def equals(self, other):
            return LookupBuilder.equals(self, other) and self.mapping == other.mapping

        def build(self):
            assert False

        def getAlternateGlyphs(self):
            return {
                key[0]: value
                for key, value in self.mapping.items()
                if len(key) == 1 and len(value) == 1
            }

        def add_subtable_break(self, location):
            self.mapping[(self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_, location)] = self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_

    class SingleSubstBuilder(LookupBuilder):
        """Builds a Single Substitution (GSUB1) lookup.

        Users are expected to manually add substitutions to the ``mapping``
        attribute after the object has been initialized, e.g.::

            # sub x by y;
            builder.mapping["x"] = "y"

        Attributes:
            font (``fontTools.TTLib.TTFont``): A font object.
            location: A string or tuple representing the location in the original
                source which produced this lookup.
            mapping: A dictionary mapping a single glyph name to another glyph name.
            lookupflag (int): The lookup's flag
            markFilterSet: Either ``None`` if no mark filtering set is used, or
                an integer representing the filtering set to be used for this
                lookup. If a mark filtering set is provided,
                `LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET` will be set on the lookup's
                flags.
        """

        def __init__(self, font, location):
            LookupBuilder.__init__(self, font, location, "GSUB", 1)
            self.mapping = OrderedDict()

        def equals(self, other):
            return LookupBuilder.equals(self, other) and self.mapping == other.mapping

        def build(self):
            """Build the lookup.

            Returns:
                An ``otTables.Lookup`` object representing the multiple
                substitution lookup.
            """
            subtables = self.build_subst_subtables(self.mapping, buildSingleSubstSubtable)
            return self.buildLookup_(subtables)

        def getAlternateGlyphs(self):
            return {glyph: [repl] for glyph, repl in self.mapping.items()}

        def add_subtable_break(self, location):
            self.mapping[(self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_, location)] = self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_

    class ClassPairPosSubtableBuilder(object):
        """Builds class-based Pair Positioning (GPOS2 format 2) subtables.

        Note that this does *not* build a GPOS2 ``otTables.Lookup`` directly,
        but builds a list of ``otTables.PairPos`` subtables. It is used by the
        :class:`PairPosBuilder` below.

        Attributes:
            builder (PairPosBuilder): A pair positioning lookup builder.
        """

        def __init__(self, builder):
            self.builder_ = builder
            self.classDef1_, self.classDef2_ = None, None
            self.values_ = {}  # (glyphclass1, glyphclass2) --> (value1, value2)
            self.forceSubtableBreak_ = False
            self.subtables_ = []

        def addPair(self, gc1, value1, gc2, value2):
            """Add a pair positioning rule.

            Args:
                gc1: A set of glyph names for the "left" glyph
                value1: An ``otTables.ValueRecord`` object for the left glyph's
                    positioning.
                gc2: A set of glyph names for the "right" glyph
                value2: An ``otTables.ValueRecord`` object for the right glyph's
                    positioning.
            """
            mergeable = (
                not self.forceSubtableBreak_
                and self.classDef1_ is not None
                and self.classDef1_.canAdd(gc1)
                and self.classDef2_ is not None
                and self.classDef2_.canAdd(gc2)
            )
            if not mergeable:
                self.flush_()
                self.classDef1_ = ClassDefBuilder(useClass0=True)
                self.classDef2_ = ClassDefBuilder(useClass0=False)
                self.values_ = {}
            self.classDef1_.add(gc1)
            self.classDef2_.add(gc2)
            self.values_[(gc1, gc2)] = (value1, value2)

        def addSubtableBreak(self):
            """Add an explicit subtable break at this point."""
            self.forceSubtableBreak_ = True

        def subtables(self):
            """Return the list of ``otTables.PairPos`` subtables constructed."""
            self.flush_()
            return self.subtables_

        def flush_(self):
            if self.classDef1_ is None or self.classDef2_ is None:
                return
            st = buildPairPosClassesSubtable(self.values_, self.builder_.glyphMap)
            if st.Coverage is None:
                return
            self.subtables_.append(st)
            self.forceSubtableBreak_ = False

    class PairPosBuilder(LookupBuilder):
        """Builds a Pair Positioning (GPOS2) lookup.

        Attributes:
            font (``fontTools.TTLib.TTFont``): A font object.
            location: A string or tuple representing the location in the original
                source which produced this lookup.
            pairs: An array of class-based pair positioning tuples. Usually
                manipulated with the :meth:`addClassPair` method below.
            glyphPairs: A dictionary mapping a tuple of glyph names to a tuple
                of ``otTables.ValueRecord`` objects. Usually manipulated with the
                :meth:`addGlyphPair` method below.
            lookupflag (int): The lookup's flag
            markFilterSet: Either ``None`` if no mark filtering set is used, or
                an integer representing the filtering set to be used for this
                lookup. If a mark filtering set is provided,
                `LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET` will be set on the lookup's
                flags.
        """

        def __init__(self, font, location):
            LookupBuilder.__init__(self, font, location, "GPOS", 2)
            self.pairs = []  # [(gc1, value1, gc2, value2)*]
            self.glyphPairs = {}  # (glyph1, glyph2) --> (value1, value2)
            self.locations = {}  # (gc1, gc2) --> (filepath, line, column)

        def addClassPair(self, location, glyphclass1, value1, glyphclass2, value2):
            """Add a class pair positioning rule to the current lookup.

            Args:
                location: A string or tuple representing the location in the
                    original source which produced this rule. Unused.
                glyphclass1: A set of glyph names for the "left" glyph in the pair.
                value1: A ``otTables.ValueRecord`` for positioning the left glyph.
                glyphclass2: A set of glyph names for the "right" glyph in the pair.
                value2: A ``otTables.ValueRecord`` for positioning the right glyph.
            """
            self.pairs.append((glyphclass1, value1, glyphclass2, value2))

        def addGlyphPair(self, location, glyph1, value1, glyph2, value2):
            """Add a glyph pair positioning rule to the current lookup.

            Args:
                location: A string or tuple representing the location in the
                    original source which produced this rule.
                glyph1: A glyph name for the "left" glyph in the pair.
                value1: A ``otTables.ValueRecord`` for positioning the left glyph.
                glyph2: A glyph name for the "right" glyph in the pair.
                value2: A ``otTables.ValueRecord`` for positioning the right glyph.
            """
            key = (glyph1, glyph2)
            oldValue = self.glyphPairs.get(key, None)
            if oldValue is not None:
                # the Feature File spec explicitly allows specific pairs generated
                # by an 'enum' rule to be overridden by preceding single pairs
                otherLoc = self.locations[key]
                log.debug(
                    "Already defined position for pair %s %s at %s; "
                    "choosing the first value",
                    glyph1,
                    glyph2,
                    otherLoc,
                )
            else:
                self.glyphPairs[key] = (value1, value2)
                self.locations[key] = location

        def add_subtable_break(self, location):
            self.pairs.append(
                (
                    self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_,
                    self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_,
                    self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_,
                    self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_,
                )
            )

        def equals(self, other):
            return (
                LookupBuilder.equals(self, other)
                and self.glyphPairs == other.glyphPairs
                and self.pairs == other.pairs
            )

        def build(self):
            """Build the lookup.

            Returns:
                An ``otTables.Lookup`` object representing the pair positioning
                lookup.
            """
            builders = {}
            builder = ClassPairPosSubtableBuilder(self)
            for glyphclass1, value1, glyphclass2, value2 in self.pairs:
                if glyphclass1 is self.SUBTABLE_BREAK_:
                    builder.addSubtableBreak()
                    continue
                builder.addPair(glyphclass1, value1, glyphclass2, value2)
            subtables = []
            if self.glyphPairs:
                subtables.extend(buildPairPosGlyphs(self.glyphPairs, self.glyphMap))
            subtables.extend(builder.subtables())
            lookup = self.buildLookup_(subtables)

            # Compact the lookup
            # This is a good moment to do it because the compaction should create
            # smaller subtables, which may prevent overflows from happening.
            # Keep reading the value from the ENV until ufo2ft switches to the config system
            level = self.font.cfg.get(
                "fontTools.otlLib.optimize.gpos:COMPRESSION_LEVEL",
                default=_compression_level_from_env(),
            )
            if level != 0:
                log.info("Compacting GPOS...")
                compact_lookup(self.font, level, lookup)

            return lookup

    class SinglePosBuilder(LookupBuilder):
        """Builds a Single Positioning (GPOS1) lookup.

        Attributes:
            font (``fontTools.TTLib.TTFont``): A font object.
            location: A string or tuple representing the location in the original
                source which produced this lookup.
            mapping: A dictionary mapping a glyph name to a ``otTables.ValueRecord``
                objects. Usually manipulated with the :meth:`add_pos` method below.
            lookupflag (int): The lookup's flag
            markFilterSet: Either ``None`` if no mark filtering set is used, or
                an integer representing the filtering set to be used for this
                lookup. If a mark filtering set is provided,
                `LOOKUP_FLAG_USE_MARK_FILTERING_SET` will be set on the lookup's
                flags.
        """

        def __init__(self, font, location):
            LookupBuilder.__init__(self, font, location, "GPOS", 1)
            self.locations = {}  # glyph -> (filename, line, column)
            self.mapping = {}  # glyph -> ot.ValueRecord

        def add_pos(self, location, glyph, otValueRecord):
            """Add a single positioning rule.

            Args:
                location: A string or tuple representing the location in the
                    original source which produced this lookup.
                glyph: A glyph name.
                otValueRection: A ``otTables.ValueRecord`` used to position the
                    glyph.
            """
            if otValueRecord is None:
                otValueRecord = ValueRecord()
            if not self.can_add(glyph, otValueRecord):
                otherLoc = self.locations[glyph]
                raise OpenTypeLibError(
                    'Already defined different position for glyph "%s" at %s'
                    % (glyph, otherLoc),
                    location,
                )
            if otValueRecord:
                self.mapping[glyph] = otValueRecord
            self.locations[glyph] = location

        def can_add(self, glyph, value):
            assert isinstance(value, ValueRecord)
            curValue = self.mapping.get(glyph)
            return curValue is None or curValue == value

        def equals(self, other):
            return LookupBuilder.equals(self, other) and self.mapping == other.mapping

        def build(self):
            """Build the lookup.

            Returns:
                An ``otTables.Lookup`` object representing the single positioning
                lookup.
            """
            subtables = buildSinglePos(self.mapping, self.glyphMap)
            return self.buildLookup_(subtables)

    # GSUB

    def buildSingleSubstSubtable(mapping):
        """Builds a single substitution (GSUB1) subtable.

        Note that if you are implementing a layout compiler, you may find it more
        flexible to use
        :py:class:`fontTools.otlLib.lookupBuilders.SingleSubstBuilder` instead.

        Args:
            mapping: A dictionary mapping input glyph names to output glyph names.

        Returns:
            An ``otTables.SingleSubst`` object, or ``None`` if the mapping dictionary
            is empty.
        """
        if not mapping:
            return None
        self = ot.SingleSubst()
        self.mapping = dict(mapping)
        return self

    def buildMultipleSubstSubtable(mapping):
        """Builds a multiple substitution (GSUB2) subtable.

        Note that if you are implementing a layout compiler, you may find it more
        flexible to use
        :py:class:`fontTools.otlLib.lookupBuilders.MultipleSubstBuilder` instead.

        Example::

            # sub uni06C0 by uni06D5.fina hamza.above
            # sub uni06C2 by uni06C1.fina hamza.above;

            subtable = buildMultipleSubstSubtable({
                "uni06C0": [ "uni06D5.fina", "hamza.above"],
                "uni06C2": [ "uni06D1.fina", "hamza.above"]
            })

        Args:
            mapping: A dictionary mapping input glyph names to a list of output
                glyph names.

        Returns:
            An ``otTables.MultipleSubst`` object or ``None`` if the mapping dictionary
            is empty.
        """
        if not mapping:
            return None
        self = ot.MultipleSubst()
        self.mapping = dict(mapping)
        return self

    def buildAlternateSubstSubtable(mapping):
        """Builds an alternate substitution (GSUB3) subtable.

        Note that if you are implementing a layout compiler, you may find it more
        flexible to use
        :py:class:`fontTools.otlLib.lookupBuilders.AlternateSubstBuilder` instead.

        Args:
            mapping: A dictionary mapping input glyph names to a list of output
                glyph names.

        Returns:
            An ``otTables.AlternateSubst`` object or ``None`` if the mapping dictionary
            is empty.
        """
        if not mapping:
            return None
        self = ot.AlternateSubst()
        self.alternates = dict(mapping)
        return self

    def buildLigatureSubstSubtable(mapping):
        """Builds a ligature substitution (GSUB4) subtable.

        Note that if you are implementing a layout compiler, you may find it more
        flexible to use
        :py:class:`fontTools.otlLib.lookupBuilders.LigatureSubstBuilder` instead.

        Example::

            # sub f f i by f_f_i;
            # sub f i by f_i;

            subtable = buildLigatureSubstSubtable({
                ("f", "f", "i"): "f_f_i",
                ("f", "i"): "f_i",
            })

        Args:
            mapping: A dictionary mapping tuples of glyph names to output
                glyph names.

        Returns:
            An ``otTables.LigatureSubst`` object or ``None`` if the mapping dictionary
            is empty.
        """

        if not mapping:
            return None
        self = ot.LigatureSubst()
        # The following single line can replace the rest of this function
        # with fontTools >= 3.1:
        # self.ligatures = dict(mapping)
        self.ligatures = {}
        for components in sorted(mapping.keys(), key=self._getLigatureSortKey):
            ligature = ot.Ligature()
            ligature.Component = components[1:]
            ligature.CompCount = len(ligature.Component) + 1
            ligature.LigGlyph = mapping[components]
            firstGlyph = components[0]
            self.ligatures.setdefault(firstGlyph, []).append(ligature)
        return self

    # GPOS

    def buildAnchor(x, y, point=None, deviceX=None, deviceY=None):
        """Builds an Anchor table.

        This determines the appropriate anchor format based on the passed parameters.

        Args:
            x (int): X coordinate.
            y (int): Y coordinate.
            point (int): Index of glyph contour point, if provided.
            deviceX (``otTables.Device``): X coordinate device table, if provided.
            deviceY (``otTables.Device``): Y coordinate device table, if provided.

        Returns:
            An ``otTables.Anchor`` object.
        """
        self = ot.Anchor()
        self.XCoordinate, self.YCoordinate = x, y
        self.Format = 1
        if point is not None:
            self.AnchorPoint = point
            self.Format = 2
        if deviceX is not None or deviceY is not None:
            assert (
                self.Format == 1
            ), "Either point, or both of deviceX/deviceY, must be None."
            self.XDeviceTable = deviceX
            self.YDeviceTable = deviceY
            self.Format = 3
        return self

    def buildBaseArray(bases, numMarkClasses, glyphMap):
        """Builds a base array record.

        As part of building mark-to-base positioning rules, you will need to define
        a ``BaseArray`` record, which "defines for each base glyph an array of
        anchors, one for each mark class." This function builds the base array
        subtable.

        Example::

            bases = {"a": {0: a3, 1: a5}, "b": {0: a4, 1: a5}}
            basearray = buildBaseArray(bases, 2, font.getReverseGlyphMap())

        Args:
            bases (dict): A dictionary mapping anchors to glyphs; the keys being
                glyph names, and the values being dictionaries mapping mark class ID
                to the appropriate ``otTables.Anchor`` object used for attaching marks
                of that class.
            numMarkClasses (int): The total number of mark classes for which anchors
                are defined.
            glyphMap: a glyph name to ID map, typically returned from
                ``font.getReverseGlyphMap()``.

        Returns:
            An ``otTables.BaseArray`` object.
        """
        self = ot.BaseArray()
        self.BaseRecord = []
        for base in sorted(bases, key=glyphMap.__getitem__):
            b = bases[base]
            anchors = [b.get(markClass) for markClass in range(numMarkClasses)]
            self.BaseRecord.append(buildBaseRecord(anchors))
        self.BaseCount = len(self.BaseRecord)
        return self

    def buildBaseRecord(anchors):
        # [otTables.Anchor, otTables.Anchor, ...] --> otTables.BaseRecord
        self = ot.BaseRecord()
        self.BaseAnchor = anchors
        return self

    def buildComponentRecord(anchors):
        """Builds a component record.

        As part of building mark-to-ligature positioning rules, you will need to
        define ``ComponentRecord`` objects, which contain "an array of offsets...
        to the Anchor tables that define all the attachment points used to attach
        marks to the component." This function builds the component record.

        Args:
            anchors: A list of ``otTables.Anchor`` objects or ``None``.

        Returns:
            A ``otTables.ComponentRecord`` object or ``None`` if no anchors are
            supplied.
        """
        if not anchors:
            return None
        self = ot.ComponentRecord()
        self.LigatureAnchor = anchors
        return self

    def buildCursivePosSubtable(attach, glyphMap):
        """Builds a cursive positioning (GPOS3) subtable.

        Cursive positioning lookups are made up of a coverage table of glyphs,
        and a set of ``EntryExitRecord`` records containing the anchors for
        each glyph. This function builds the cursive positioning subtable.

        Example::

            subtable = buildCursivePosSubtable({
                "AlifIni": (None, buildAnchor(0, 50)),
                "BehMed": (buildAnchor(500,250), buildAnchor(0,50)),
                # ...
            }, font.getReverseGlyphMap())

        Args:
            attach (dict): A mapping between glyph names and a tuple of two
                ``otTables.Anchor`` objects representing entry and exit anchors.
            glyphMap: a glyph name to ID map, typically returned from
                ``font.getReverseGlyphMap()``.

        Returns:
            An ``otTables.CursivePos`` object, or ``None`` if the attachment
            dictionary was empty.
        """
        if not attach:
            return None
        self = ot.CursivePos()
        self.Format = 1
        self.Coverage = buildCoverage(attach.keys(), glyphMap)
        self.EntryExitRecord = []
        for glyph in self.Coverage.glyphs:
            entryAnchor, exitAnchor = attach[glyph]
            rec = ot.EntryExitRecord()
            rec.EntryAnchor = entryAnchor
            rec.ExitAnchor = exitAnchor
            self.EntryExitRecord.append(rec)
        self.EntryExitCount = len(self.EntryExitRecord)
        return self

    def buildDevice(deltas):
        """Builds a Device record as part of a ValueRecord or Anchor.

        Device tables specify size-specific adjustments to value records
        and anchors to reflect changes based on the resolution of the output.
        For example, one could specify that an anchor's Y position should be
        increased by 1 pixel when displayed at 8 pixels per em. This routine
        builds device records.

        Args:
            deltas: A dictionary mapping pixels-per-em sizes to the delta
                adjustment in pixels when the font is displayed at that size.

        Returns:
            An ``otTables.Device`` object if any deltas were supplied, or
            ``None`` otherwise.
        """
        if not deltas:
            return None
        self = ot.Device()
        keys = deltas.keys()
        self.StartSize = startSize = min(keys)
        self.EndSize = endSize = max(keys)
        assert 0 <= startSize <= endSize
        self.DeltaValue = deltaValues = [
            deltas.get(size, 0) for size in range(startSize, endSize + 1)
        ]
        maxDelta = max(deltaValues)
        minDelta = min(deltaValues)
        assert minDelta > -129 and maxDelta < 128
        if minDelta > -3 and maxDelta < 2:
            self.DeltaFormat = 1
        elif minDelta > -9 and maxDelta < 8:
            self.DeltaFormat = 2
        else:
            self.DeltaFormat = 3
        return self

    def buildLigatureArray(ligs, numMarkClasses, glyphMap):
        """Builds a LigatureArray subtable.

        As part of building a mark-to-ligature lookup, you will need to define
        the set of anchors (for each mark class) on each component of the ligature
        where marks can be attached. For example, for an Arabic divine name ligature
        (lam lam heh), you may want to specify mark attachment positioning for
        superior marks (fatha, etc.) and inferior marks (kasra, etc.) on each glyph
        of the ligature. This routine builds the ligature array record.

        Example::

            buildLigatureArray({
                "lam-lam-heh": [
                    { 0: superiorAnchor1, 1: inferiorAnchor1 }, # attach points for lam1
                    { 0: superiorAnchor2, 1: inferiorAnchor2 }, # attach points for lam2
                    { 0: superiorAnchor3, 1: inferiorAnchor3 }, # attach points for heh
                ]
            }, 2, font.getReverseGlyphMap())

        Args:
            ligs (dict): A mapping of ligature names to an array of dictionaries:
                for each component glyph in the ligature, an dictionary mapping
                mark class IDs to anchors.
            numMarkClasses (int): The number of mark classes.
            glyphMap: a glyph name to ID map, typically returned from
                ``font.getReverseGlyphMap()``.

        Returns:
            An ``otTables.LigatureArray`` object if deltas were supplied.
        """
        self = ot.LigatureArray()
        self.LigatureAttach = []
        for lig in sorted(ligs, key=glyphMap.__getitem__):
            anchors = []
            for component in ligs[lig]:
                anchors.append([component.get(mc) for mc in range(numMarkClasses)])
            self.LigatureAttach.append(buildLigatureAttach(anchors))
        self.LigatureCount = len(self.LigatureAttach)
        return self

    def buildLigatureAttach(components):
        # [[Anchor, Anchor], [Anchor, Anchor, Anchor]] --> LigatureAttach
        self = ot.LigatureAttach()
        self.ComponentRecord = [buildComponentRecord(c) for c in components]
        self.ComponentCount = len(self.ComponentRecord)
        return self

    def buildMarkArray(marks, glyphMap):
        """Builds a mark array subtable.

        As part of building mark-to-* positioning rules, you will need to define
        a MarkArray subtable, which "defines the class and the anchor point
        for a mark glyph." This function builds the mark array subtable.

        Example::

            mark = {
                "acute": (0, buildAnchor(300,712)),
                # ...
            }
            markarray = buildMarkArray(marks, font.getReverseGlyphMap())

        Args:
            marks (dict): A dictionary mapping anchors to glyphs; the keys being
                glyph names, and the values being a tuple of mark class number and
                an ``otTables.Anchor`` object representing the mark's attachment
                point.
            glyphMap: a glyph name to ID map, typically returned from
                ``font.getReverseGlyphMap()``.

        Returns:
            An ``otTables.MarkArray`` object.
        """
        self = ot.MarkArray()
        self.MarkRecord = []
        for mark in sorted(marks.keys(), key=glyphMap.__getitem__):
            markClass, anchor = marks[mark]
            markrec = buildMarkRecord(markClass, anchor)
            self.MarkRecord.append(markrec)
        self.MarkCount = len(self.MarkRecord)
        return self

    @deprecateFunction(
        "use buildMarkBasePosSubtable() instead", category=DeprecationWarning
    )
    def buildMarkBasePos(marks, bases, glyphMap):
        """Build a list of MarkBasePos (GPOS4) subtables.

        .. deprecated:: 4.58.0
               Use :func:`buildMarkBasePosSubtable` instead.
        """
        return [buildMarkBasePosSubtable(marks, bases, glyphMap)]

    def buildMarkBasePosSubtable(marks, bases, glyphMap):
        """Build a single MarkBasePos (GPOS4) subtable.

        This builds a mark-to-base lookup subtable containing all of the referenced
        marks and bases.

        Example::

            # a1, a2, a3, a4, a5 = buildAnchor(500, 100), ...

            marks = {"acute": (0, a1), "grave": (0, a1), "cedilla": (1, a2)}
            bases = {"a": {0: a3, 1: a5}, "b": {0: a4, 1: a5}}
            markbaseposes = [buildMarkBasePosSubtable(marks, bases, font.getReverseGlyphMap())]

        Args:
            marks (dict): A dictionary mapping anchors to glyphs; the keys being
                glyph names, and the values being a tuple of mark class number and
                an ``otTables.Anchor`` object representing the mark's attachment
                point. (See :func:`buildMarkArray`.)
            bases (dict): A dictionary mapping anchors to glyphs; the keys being
                glyph names, and the values being dictionaries mapping mark class ID
                to the appropriate ``otTables.Anchor`` object used for attaching marks
                of that class. (See :func:`buildBaseArray`.)
            glyphMap: a glyph name to ID map, typically returned from
                ``font.getReverseGlyphMap()``.

        Returns:
            A ``otTables.MarkBasePos`` object.
        """
        self = ot.MarkBasePos()
        self.Format = 1
        self.MarkCoverage = buildCoverage(marks, glyphMap)
        self.MarkArray = buildMarkArray(marks, glyphMap)
        self.ClassCount = max([mc for mc, _ in marks.values()]) + 1
        self.BaseCoverage = buildCoverage(bases, glyphMap)
        self.BaseArray = buildBaseArray(bases, self.ClassCount, glyphMap)
        return self

    @deprecateFunction("use buildMarkLigPosSubtable() instead", category=DeprecationWarning)
    def buildMarkLigPos(marks, ligs, glyphMap):
        """Build a list of MarkLigPos (GPOS5) subtables.

        .. deprecated:: 4.58.0
           Use :func:`buildMarkLigPosSubtable` instead.
        """
        return [buildMarkLigPosSubtable(marks, ligs, glyphMap)]

    def buildMarkLigPosSubtable(marks, ligs, glyphMap):
        """Build a single MarkLigPos (GPOS5) subtable.

        This builds a mark-to-base lookup subtable containing all of the referenced
        marks and bases.

        Note that if you are implementing a layout compiler, you may find it more
        flexible to use
        :py:class:`fontTools.otlLib.lookupBuilders.MarkLigPosBuilder` instead.

        Example::

            # a1, a2, a3, a4, a5 = buildAnchor(500, 100), ...
            marks = {
                "acute": (0, a1),
                "grave": (0, a1),
                "cedilla": (1, a2)
            }
            ligs = {
                "f_i": [
                    { 0: a3, 1: a5 }, # f
                    { 0: a4, 1: a5 }  # i
                    ],
            #   "c_t": [{...}, {...}]
            }
            markligpose = buildMarkLigPosSubtable(marks, ligs,
                font.getReverseGlyphMap())

        Args:
            marks (dict): A dictionary mapping anchors to glyphs; the keys being
                glyph names, and the values being a tuple of mark class number and
                an ``otTables.Anchor`` object representing the mark's attachment
                point. (See :func:`buildMarkArray`.)
            ligs (dict): A mapping of ligature names to an array of dictionaries:
                for each component glyph in the ligature, an dictionary mapping
                mark class IDs to anchors. (See :func:`buildLigatureArray`.)
            glyphMap: a glyph name to ID map, typically returned from
                ``font.getReverseGlyphMap()``.

        Returns:
            A ``otTables.MarkLigPos`` object.
        """
        self = ot.MarkLigPos()
        self.Format = 1
        self.MarkCoverage = buildCoverage(marks, glyphMap)
        self.MarkArray = buildMarkArray(marks, glyphMap)
        self.ClassCount = max([mc for mc, _ in marks.values()]) + 1
        self.LigatureCoverage = buildCoverage(ligs, glyphMap)
        self.LigatureArray = buildLigatureArray(ligs, self.ClassCount, glyphMap)
        return self

    def buildMarkRecord(classID, anchor):
        assert isinstance(classID, int)
        assert isinstance(anchor, ot.Anchor)
        self = ot.MarkRecord()
        self.Class = classID
        self.MarkAnchor = anchor
        return self

    def buildMark2Record(anchors):
        # [otTables.Anchor, otTables.Anchor, ...] --> otTables.Mark2Record
        self = ot.Mark2Record()
        self.Mark2Anchor = anchors
        return self

    def _getValueFormat(f, values, i):
        # Helper for buildPairPos{Glyphs|Classes}Subtable.
        if f is not None:
            return f
        mask = 0
        for value in values:
            if value is not None and value[i] is not None:
                mask |= value[i].getFormat()
        return mask

    def buildPairPosClassesSubtable(pairs, glyphMap, valueFormat1=None, valueFormat2=None):
        """Builds a class pair adjustment (GPOS2 format 2) subtable.

        Kerning tables are generally expressed as pair positioning tables using
        class-based pair adjustments. This routine builds format 2 PairPos
        subtables.

        Note that if you are implementing a layout compiler, you may find it more
        flexible to use
        :py:class:`fontTools.otlLib.lookupBuilders.ClassPairPosSubtableBuilder`
        instead, as this takes care of ensuring that the supplied pairs can be
        formed into non-overlapping classes and emitting individual subtables
        whenever the non-overlapping requirement means that a new subtable is
        required.

        Example::

            pairs = {}

            pairs[(
                [ "K", "X" ],
                [ "W", "V" ]
            )] = ( buildValue(xAdvance=+5), buildValue() )
            # pairs[(... , ...)] = (..., ...)

            pairpos = buildPairPosClassesSubtable(pairs, font.getReverseGlyphMap())

        Args:
            pairs (dict): Pair positioning data; the keys being a two-element
                tuple of lists of glyphnames, and the values being a two-element
                tuple of ``otTables.ValueRecord`` objects.
            glyphMap: a glyph name to ID map, typically returned from
                ``font.getReverseGlyphMap()``.
            valueFormat1: Force the "left" value records to the given format.
            valueFormat2: Force the "right" value records to the given format.

        Returns:
            A ``otTables.PairPos`` object.
        """
        coverage = set()
        classDef1 = ClassDefBuilder(useClass0=True)
        classDef2 = ClassDefBuilder(useClass0=False)
        for gc1, gc2 in sorted(pairs):
            coverage.update(gc1)
            classDef1.add(gc1)
            classDef2.add(gc2)
        self = ot.PairPos()
        self.Format = 2
        valueFormat1 = self.ValueFormat1 = _getValueFormat(valueFormat1, pairs.values(), 0)
        valueFormat2 = self.ValueFormat2 = _getValueFormat(valueFormat2, pairs.values(), 1)
        self.Coverage = buildCoverage(coverage, glyphMap)
        self.ClassDef1 = classDef1.build()
        self.ClassDef2 = classDef2.build()
        classes1 = classDef1.classes()
        classes2 = classDef2.classes()
        self.Class1Record = []
        for c1 in classes1:
            rec1 = ot.Class1Record()
            rec1.Class2Record = []
            self.Class1Record.append(rec1)
            for c2 in classes2:
                rec2 = ot.Class2Record()
                val1, val2 = pairs.get((c1, c2), (None, None))
                rec2.Value1 = (
                    ValueRecord(src=val1, valueFormat=valueFormat1)
                    if valueFormat1
                    else None
                )
                rec2.Value2 = (
                    ValueRecord(src=val2, valueFormat=valueFormat2)
                    if valueFormat2
                    else None
                )
                rec1.Class2Record.append(rec2)
        self.Class1Count = len(self.Class1Record)
        self.Class2Count = len(classes2)
        return self

    def buildPairPosGlyphs(pairs, glyphMap):
        """Builds a list of glyph-based pair adjustment (GPOS2 format 1) subtables.

        This organises a list of pair positioning adjustments into subtables based
        on common value record formats.

        Note that if you are implementing a layout compiler, you may find it more
        flexible to use
        :py:class:`fontTools.otlLib.lookupBuilders.PairPosBuilder`
        instead.

        Example::

            pairs = {
                ("K", "W"): ( buildValue(xAdvance=+5), buildValue() ),
                ("K", "V"): ( buildValue(xAdvance=+5), buildValue() ),
                # ...
            }

            subtables = buildPairPosGlyphs(pairs, font.getReverseGlyphMap())

        Args:
            pairs (dict): Pair positioning data; the keys being a two-element
                tuple of glyphnames, and the values being a two-element
                tuple of ``otTables.ValueRecord`` objects.
            glyphMap: a glyph name to ID map, typically returned from
                ``font.getReverseGlyphMap()``.

        Returns:
            A list of ``otTables.PairPos`` objects.
        """

        p = {}  # (formatA, formatB) --> {(glyphA, glyphB): (valA, valB)}
        for (glyphA, glyphB), (valA, valB) in pairs.items():
            formatA = valA.getFormat() if valA is not None else 0
            formatB = valB.getFormat() if valB is not None else 0
            pos = p.setdefault((formatA, formatB), {})
            pos[(glyphA, glyphB)] = (valA, valB)
        return [
            buildPairPosGlyphsSubtable(pos, glyphMap, formatA, formatB)
            for ((formatA, formatB), pos) in sorted(p.items())
        ]

    def buildPairPosGlyphsSubtable(pairs, glyphMap, valueFormat1=None, valueFormat2=None):
        """Builds a single glyph-based pair adjustment (GPOS2 format 1) subtable.

        This builds a PairPos subtable from a dictionary of glyph pairs and
        their positioning adjustments. See also :func:`buildPairPosGlyphs`.

        Note that if you are implementing a layout compiler, you may find it more
        flexible to use
        :py:class:`fontTools.otlLib.lookupBuilders.PairPosBuilder` instead.

        Example::

            pairs = {
                ("K", "W"): ( buildValue(xAdvance=+5), buildValue() ),
                ("K", "V"): ( buildValue(xAdvance=+5), buildValue() ),
                # ...
            }

            pairpos = buildPairPosGlyphsSubtable(pairs, font.getReverseGlyphMap())

        Args:
            pairs (dict): Pair positioning data; the keys being a two-element
                tuple of glyphnames, and the values being a two-element
                tuple of ``otTables.ValueRecord`` objects.
            glyphMap: a glyph name to ID map, typically returned from
                ``font.getReverseGlyphMap()``.
            valueFormat1: Force the "left" value records to the given format.
            valueFormat2: Force the "right" value records to the given format.

        Returns:
            A ``otTables.PairPos`` object.
        """
        self = ot.PairPos()
        self.Format = 1
        valueFormat1 = self.ValueFormat1 = _getValueFormat(valueFormat1, pairs.values(), 0)
        valueFormat2 = self.ValueFormat2 = _getValueFormat(valueFormat2, pairs.values(), 1)
        p = {}
        for (glyphA, glyphB), (valA, valB) in pairs.items():
            p.setdefault(glyphA, []).append((glyphB, valA, valB))
        self.Coverage = buildCoverage({g for g, _ in pairs.keys()}, glyphMap)
        self.PairSet = []
        for glyph in self.Coverage.glyphs:
            ps = ot.PairSet()
            ps.PairValueRecord = []
            self.PairSet.append(ps)
            for glyph2, val1, val2 in sorted(p[glyph], key=lambda x: glyphMap[x[0]]):
                pvr = ot.PairValueRecord()
                pvr.SecondGlyph = glyph2
                pvr.Value1 = (
                    ValueRecord(src=val1, valueFormat=valueFormat1)
                    if valueFormat1
                    else None
                )
                pvr.Value2 = (
                    ValueRecord(src=val2, valueFormat=valueFormat2)
                    if valueFormat2
                    else None
                )
                ps.PairValueRecord.append(pvr)
            ps.PairValueCount = len(ps.PairValueRecord)
        self.PairSetCount = len(self.PairSet)
        return self

    def buildSinglePos(mapping, glyphMap):
        """Builds a list of single adjustment (GPOS1) subtables.

        This builds a list of SinglePos subtables from a dictionary of glyph
        names and their positioning adjustments. The format of the subtables are
        determined to optimize the size of the resulting subtables.
        See also :func:`buildSinglePosSubtable`.

        Note that if you are implementing a layout compiler, you may find it more
        flexible to use
        :py:class:`fontTools.otlLib.lookupBuilders.SinglePosBuilder` instead.

        Example::

            mapping = {
                "V": buildValue({ "xAdvance" : +5 }),
                # ...
            }

            subtables = buildSinglePos(pairs, font.getReverseGlyphMap())

        Args:
            mapping (dict): A mapping between glyphnames and
                ``otTables.ValueRecord`` objects.
            glyphMap: a glyph name to ID map, typically returned from
                ``font.getReverseGlyphMap()``.

        Returns:
            A list of ``otTables.SinglePos`` objects.
        """
        result, handled = [], set()
        # In SinglePos format 1, the covered glyphs all share the same ValueRecord.
        # In format 2, each glyph has its own ValueRecord, but these records
        # all have the same properties (eg., all have an X but no Y placement).
        coverages, masks, values = {}, {}, {}
        for glyph, value in mapping.items():
            key = _getSinglePosValueKey(value)
            coverages.setdefault(key, []).append(glyph)
            masks.setdefault(key[0], []).append(key)
            values[key] = value

        # If a ValueRecord is shared between multiple glyphs, we generate
        # a SinglePos format 1 subtable; that is the most compact form.
        for key, glyphs in coverages.items():
            # 5 ushorts is the length of introducing another sublookup
            if len(glyphs) * _getSinglePosValueSize(key) > 5:
                format1Mapping = {g: values[key] for g in glyphs}
                result.append(buildSinglePosSubtable(format1Mapping, glyphMap))
                handled.add(key)

        # In the remaining ValueRecords, look for those whose valueFormat
        # (the set of used properties) is shared between multiple records.
        # These will get encoded in format 2.
        for valueFormat, keys in masks.items():
            f2 = [k for k in keys if k not in handled]
            if len(f2) > 1:
                format2Mapping = {}
                for k in f2:
                    format2Mapping.update((g, values[k]) for g in coverages[k])
                result.append(buildSinglePosSubtable(format2Mapping, glyphMap))
                handled.update(f2)

        # The remaining ValueRecords are only used by a few glyphs, normally
        # one. We encode these in format 1 again.
        for key, glyphs in coverages.items():
            if key not in handled:
                for g in glyphs:
                    st = buildSinglePosSubtable({g: values[key]}, glyphMap)
                result.append(st)

        # When the OpenType layout engine traverses the subtables, it will
        # stop after the first matching subtable.  Therefore, we sort the
        # resulting subtables by decreasing coverage size; this increases
        # the chance that the layout engine can do an early exit. (Of course,
        # this would only be true if all glyphs were equally frequent, which
        # is not really the case; but we do not know their distribution).
        # If two subtables cover the same number of glyphs, we sort them
        # by glyph ID so that our output is deterministic.
        result.sort(key=lambda t: _getSinglePosTableKey(t, glyphMap))
        return result

    def buildSinglePosSubtable(values, glyphMap):
        """Builds a single adjustment (GPOS1) subtable.

        This builds a list of SinglePos subtables from a dictionary of glyph
        names and their positioning adjustments. The format of the subtable is
        determined to optimize the size of the output.
        See also :func:`buildSinglePos`.

        Note that if you are implementing a layout compiler, you may find it more
        flexible to use
        :py:class:`fontTools.otlLib.lookupBuilders.SinglePosBuilder` instead.

        Example::

            mapping = {
                "V": buildValue({ "xAdvance" : +5 }),
                # ...
            }

            subtable = buildSinglePos(pairs, font.getReverseGlyphMap())

        Args:
            mapping (dict): A mapping between glyphnames and
                ``otTables.ValueRecord`` objects.
            glyphMap: a glyph name to ID map, typically returned from
                ``font.getReverseGlyphMap()``.

        Returns:
            A ``otTables.SinglePos`` object.
        """
        self = ot.SinglePos()
        self.Coverage = buildCoverage(values.keys(), glyphMap)
        valueFormat = self.ValueFormat = reduce(
            int.__or__, [v.getFormat() for v in values.values()], 0
        )
        valueRecords = [
            ValueRecord(src=values[g], valueFormat=valueFormat)
            for g in self.Coverage.glyphs
        ]
        if all(v == valueRecords[0] for v in valueRecords):
            self.Format = 1
            if self.ValueFormat != 0:
                self.Value = valueRecords[0]
            else:
                self.Value = None
        else:
            self.Format = 2
            self.Value = valueRecords
            self.ValueCount = len(self.Value)
        return self

    def _getSinglePosTableKey(subtable, glyphMap):
        assert isinstance(subtable, ot.SinglePos), subtable
        glyphs = subtable.Coverage.glyphs
        return (-len(glyphs), glyphMap[glyphs[0]])

    def _getSinglePosValueKey(valueRecord):
        # otBase.ValueRecord --> (2, ("YPlacement": 12))
        assert isinstance(valueRecord, ValueRecord), valueRecord
        valueFormat, result = 0, []
        for name, value in valueRecord.__dict__.items():
            if isinstance(value, ot.Device):
                result.append((name, _makeDeviceTuple(value)))
            else:
                result.append((name, value))
            valueFormat |= valueRecordFormatDict[name][0]
        result.sort()
        result.insert(0, valueFormat)
        return tuple(result)

    _DeviceTuple = namedtuple("_DeviceTuple", "DeltaFormat StartSize EndSize DeltaValue")

    def _makeDeviceTuple(device):
        # otTables.Device --> tuple, for making device tables unique
        return _DeviceTuple(
            device.DeltaFormat,
            device.StartSize,
            device.EndSize,
            () if device.DeltaFormat & 0x8000 else tuple(device.DeltaValue),
        )

    def _getSinglePosValueSize(valueKey):
        # Returns how many ushorts this valueKey (short form of ValueRecord) takes up
        count = 0
        for _, v in valueKey[1:]:
            if isinstance(v, _DeviceTuple):
                count += len(v.DeltaValue) + 3
            else:
                count += 1
        return count

    def buildValue(value):
        """Builds a positioning value record.

        Value records are used to specify coordinates and adjustments for
        positioning and attaching glyphs. Many of the positioning functions
        in this library take ``otTables.ValueRecord`` objects as arguments.
        This function builds value records from dictionaries.

        Args:
            value (dict): A dictionary with zero or more of the following keys:
                - ``xPlacement``
                - ``yPlacement``
                - ``xAdvance``
                - ``yAdvance``
                - ``xPlaDevice``
                - ``yPlaDevice``
                - ``xAdvDevice``
                - ``yAdvDevice``

        Returns:
            An ``otTables.ValueRecord`` object.
        """
        self = ValueRecord()
        for k, v in value.items():
            setattr(self, k, v)
        return self

    # GDEF

    def buildAttachList(attachPoints, glyphMap):
        """Builds an AttachList subtable.

        A GDEF table may contain an Attachment Point List table (AttachList)
        which stores the contour indices of attachment points for glyphs with
        attachment points. This routine builds AttachList subtables.

        Args:
            attachPoints (dict): A mapping between glyph names and a list of
                contour indices.

        Returns:
            An ``otTables.AttachList`` object if attachment points are supplied,
                or ``None`` otherwise.
        """
        if not attachPoints:
            return None
        self = ot.AttachList()
        self.Coverage = buildCoverage(attachPoints.keys(), glyphMap)
        self.AttachPoint = [buildAttachPoint(attachPoints[g]) for g in self.Coverage.glyphs]
        self.GlyphCount = len(self.AttachPoint)
        return self

    def buildAttachPoint(points):
        # [4, 23, 41] --> otTables.AttachPoint
        # Only used by above.
        if not points:
            return None
        self = ot.AttachPoint()
        self.PointIndex = sorted(set(points))
        self.PointCount = len(self.PointIndex)
        return self

    def buildCaretValueForCoord(coord):
        # 500 --> otTables.CaretValue, format 1
        # (500, DeviceTable) --> otTables.CaretValue, format 3
        self = ot.CaretValue()
        if isinstance(coord, tuple):
            self.Format = 3
            self.Coordinate, self.DeviceTable = coord
        else:
            self.Format = 1
            self.Coordinate = coord
        return self

    def buildCaretValueForPoint(point):
        # 4 --> otTables.CaretValue, format 2
        self = ot.CaretValue()
        self.Format = 2
        self.CaretValuePoint = point
        return self

    def buildLigCaretList(coords, points, glyphMap):
        """Builds a ligature caret list table.

        Ligatures appear as a single glyph representing multiple characters; however
        when, for example, editing text containing a ``f_i`` ligature, the user may
        want to place the cursor between the ``f`` and the ``i``. The ligature caret
        list in the GDEF table specifies the position to display the "caret" (the
        character insertion indicator, typically a flashing vertical bar) "inside"
        the ligature to represent an insertion point. The insertion positions may
        be specified either by coordinate or by contour point.

        Example::

            coords = {
                "f_f_i": [300, 600] # f|fi cursor at 300 units, ff|i cursor at 600.
            }
            points = {
                "c_t": [28] # c|t cursor appears at coordinate of contour point 28.
            }
            ligcaretlist = buildLigCaretList(coords, points, font.getReverseGlyphMap())

        Args:
            coords: A mapping between glyph names and a list of coordinates for
                the insertion point of each ligature component after the first one.
            points: A mapping between glyph names and a list of contour points for
                the insertion point of each ligature component after the first one.
            glyphMap: a glyph name to ID map, typically returned from
                ``font.getReverseGlyphMap()``.

        Returns:
            A ``otTables.LigCaretList`` object if any carets are present, or
                ``None`` otherwise."""
        glyphs = set(coords.keys()) if coords else set()
        if points:
            glyphs.update(points.keys())
        carets = {g: buildLigGlyph(coords.get(g), points.get(g)) for g in glyphs}
        carets = {g: c for g, c in carets.items() if c is not None}
        if not carets:
            return None
        self = ot.LigCaretList()
        self.Coverage = buildCoverage(carets.keys(), glyphMap)
        self.LigGlyph = [carets[g] for g in self.Coverage.glyphs]
        self.LigGlyphCount = len(self.LigGlyph)
        return self

    def buildLigGlyph(coords, points):
        # ([500], [4]) --> otTables.LigGlyph; None for empty coords/points
        carets = []
        if coords:
            coords = sorted(coords, key=lambda c: c[0] if isinstance(c, tuple) else c)
            carets.extend([buildCaretValueForCoord(c) for c in coords])
        if points:
            carets.extend([buildCaretValueForPoint(p) for p in sorted(points)])
        if not carets:
            return None
        self = ot.LigGlyph()
        self.CaretValue = carets
        self.CaretCount = len(self.CaretValue)
        return self

    def buildMarkGlyphSetsDef(markSets, glyphMap):
        """Builds a mark glyph sets definition table.

        OpenType Layout lookups may choose to use mark filtering sets to consider
        or ignore particular combinations of marks. These sets are specified by
        setting a flag on the lookup, but the mark filtering sets are defined in
        the ``GDEF`` table. This routine builds the subtable containing the mark
        glyph set definitions.

        Example::

            set0 = set("acute", "grave")
            set1 = set("caron", "grave")

            markglyphsets = buildMarkGlyphSetsDef([set0, set1], font.getReverseGlyphMap())

        Args:

            markSets: A list of sets of glyphnames.
            glyphMap: a glyph name to ID map, typically returned from
                ``font.getReverseGlyphMap()``.

        Returns
            An ``otTables.MarkGlyphSetsDef`` object.
        """
        if not markSets:
            return None
        self = ot.MarkGlyphSetsDef()
        self.MarkSetTableFormat = 1
        self.Coverage = [buildCoverage(m, glyphMap) for m in markSets]
        self.MarkSetCount = len(self.Coverage)
        return self

    class ClassDefBuilder(object):
        """Helper for building ClassDef tables."""

        def __init__(self, useClass0):
            self.classes_ = set()
            self.glyphs_ = {}
            self.useClass0_ = useClass0

        def canAdd(self, glyphs):
            if isinstance(glyphs, (set, frozenset)):
                glyphs = sorted(glyphs)
            glyphs = tuple(glyphs)
            if glyphs in self.classes_:
                return True
            for glyph in glyphs:
                if glyph in self.glyphs_:
                    return False
            return True

        def add(self, glyphs):
            if isinstance(glyphs, (set, frozenset)):
                glyphs = sorted(glyphs)
            glyphs = tuple(glyphs)
            if glyphs in self.classes_:
                return
            self.classes_.add(glyphs)
            for glyph in glyphs:
                if glyph in self.glyphs_:
                    raise OpenTypeLibError(
                        f"Glyph {glyph} is already present in class.", None
                    )
                self.glyphs_[glyph] = glyphs

        def classes(self):
            # In ClassDef1 tables, class id #0 does not need to be encoded
            # because zero is the default. Therefore, we use id #0 for the
            # glyph class that has the largest number of members. However,
            # in other tables than ClassDef1, 0 means "every other glyph"
            # so we should not use that ID for any real glyph classes;
            # we implement this by inserting an empty set at position 0.
            #
            # TODO: Instead of counting the number of glyphs in each class,
            # we should determine the encoded size. If the glyphs in a large
            # class form a contiguous range, the encoding is actually quite
            # compact, whereas a non-contiguous set might need a lot of bytes
            # in the output file. We don't get this right with the key below.
            result = sorted(self.classes_, key=lambda s: (-len(s), s))
            if not self.useClass0_:
                result.insert(0, frozenset())
            return result

        def build(self):
            glyphClasses = {}
            for classID, glyphs in enumerate(self.classes()):
                if classID == 0:
                    continue
                for glyph in glyphs:
                    glyphClasses[glyph] = classID
            classDef = ot.ClassDef()
            classDef.classDefs = glyphClasses
            return classDef

    AXIS_VALUE_NEGATIVE_INFINITY = fixedToFloat(-0x80000000, 16)
    AXIS_VALUE_POSITIVE_INFINITY = fixedToFloat(0x7FFFFFFF, 16)

    STATName = Union[int, str, Dict[str, str]]
    """A raw name ID, English name, or multilingual name."""

    def buildStatTable(
        ttFont: TTFont,
        axes,
        locations=None,
        elidedFallbackName: Union[STATName, STATNameStatement] = 2,
        windowsNames: bool = True,
        macNames: bool = True,
    ) -> None:
        """Add a 'STAT' table to 'ttFont'.

        'axes' is a list of dictionaries describing axes and their
        values.

        Example::

            axes = [
                dict(
                    tag="wght",
                    name="Weight",
                    ordering=0,  # optional
                    values=[
                        dict(value=100, name='Thin'),
                        dict(value=300, name='Light'),
                        dict(value=400, name='Regular', flags=0x2),
                        dict(value=900, name='Black'),
                    ],
                )
            ]

        Each axis dict must have 'tag' and 'name' items. 'tag' maps
        to the 'AxisTag' field. 'name' can be a name ID (int), a string,
        or a dictionary containing multilingual names (see the
        addMultilingualName() name table method), and will translate to
        the AxisNameID field.

        An axis dict may contain an 'ordering' item that maps to the
        AxisOrdering field. If omitted, the order of the axes list is
        used to calculate AxisOrdering fields.

        The axis dict may contain a 'values' item, which is a list of
        dictionaries describing AxisValue records belonging to this axis.

        Each value dict must have a 'name' item, which can be a name ID
        (int), a string, or a dictionary containing multilingual names,
        like the axis name. It translates to the ValueNameID field.

        Optionally the value dict can contain a 'flags' item. It maps to
        the AxisValue Flags field, and will be 0 when omitted.

        The format of the AxisValue is determined by the remaining contents
        of the value dictionary:

        If the value dict contains a 'value' item, an AxisValue record
        Format 1 is created. If in addition to the 'value' item it contains
        a 'linkedValue' item, an AxisValue record Format 3 is built.

        If the value dict contains a 'nominalValue' item, an AxisValue
        record Format 2 is built. Optionally it may contain 'rangeMinValue'
        and 'rangeMaxValue' items. These map to -Infinity and +Infinity
        respectively if omitted.

        You cannot specify Format 4 AxisValue tables this way, as they are
        not tied to a single axis, and specify a name for a location that
        is defined by multiple axes values. Instead, you need to supply the
        'locations' argument.

        The optional 'locations' argument specifies AxisValue Format 4
        tables. It should be a list of dicts, where each dict has a 'name'
        item, which works just like the value dicts above, an optional
        'flags' item (defaulting to 0x0), and a 'location' dict. A
        location dict key is an axis tag, and the associated value is the
        location on the specified axis. They map to the AxisIndex and Value
        fields of the AxisValueRecord.

        Example::

            locations = [
                dict(name='Regular ABCD', location=dict(wght=300, ABCD=100)),
                dict(name='Bold ABCD XYZ', location=dict(wght=600, ABCD=200)),
            ]

        The optional 'elidedFallbackName' argument can be a name ID (int),
        a string, a dictionary containing multilingual names, or a list of
        STATNameStatements. It translates to the ElidedFallbackNameID field.

        The 'ttFont' argument must be a TTFont instance that already has a
        'name' table. If a 'STAT' table already exists, it will be
        overwritten by the newly created one.
        """
        ttFont["STAT"] = ttLib.newTable("STAT")
        statTable = ttFont["STAT"].table = ot.STAT()
        statTable.ElidedFallbackNameID = _addName(
            ttFont, elidedFallbackName, windows=windowsNames, mac=macNames
        )

        # 'locations' contains data for AxisValue Format 4
        axisRecords, axisValues = _buildAxisRecords(
            axes, ttFont, windowsNames=windowsNames, macNames=macNames
        )
        if not locations:
            statTable.Version = 0x00010001
        else:
            # We'll be adding Format 4 AxisValue records, which
            # requires a higher table version
            statTable.Version = 0x00010002
            multiAxisValues = _buildAxisValuesFormat4(
                locations, axes, ttFont, windowsNames=windowsNames, macNames=macNames
            )
            axisValues = multiAxisValues + axisValues
        ttFont["name"].names.sort()

        # Store AxisRecords
        axisRecordArray = ot.AxisRecordArray()
        axisRecordArray.Axis = axisRecords
        # XXX these should not be hard-coded but computed automatically
        statTable.DesignAxisRecordSize = 8
        statTable.DesignAxisRecord = axisRecordArray
        statTable.DesignAxisCount = len(axisRecords)

        statTable.AxisValueCount = 0
        statTable.AxisValueArray = None
        if axisValues:
            # Store AxisValueRecords
            axisValueArray = ot.AxisValueArray()
            axisValueArray.AxisValue = axisValues
            statTable.AxisValueArray = axisValueArray
            statTable.AxisValueCount = len(axisValues)

    def _buildAxisRecords(axes, ttFont, windowsNames=True, macNames=True):
        axisRecords = []
        axisValues = []
        for axisRecordIndex, axisDict in enumerate(axes):
            axis = ot.AxisRecord()
            axis.AxisTag = axisDict["tag"]
            axis.AxisNameID = _addName(
                ttFont, axisDict["name"], 256, windows=windowsNames, mac=macNames
            )
            axis.AxisOrdering = axisDict.get("ordering", axisRecordIndex)
            axisRecords.append(axis)

            for axisVal in axisDict.get("values", ()):
                axisValRec = ot.AxisValue()
                axisValRec.AxisIndex = axisRecordIndex
                axisValRec.Flags = axisVal.get("flags", 0)
                axisValRec.ValueNameID = _addName(
                    ttFont, axisVal["name"], windows=windowsNames, mac=macNames
                )

                if "value" in axisVal:
                    axisValRec.Value = axisVal["value"]
                    if "linkedValue" in axisVal:
                        axisValRec.Format = 3
                        axisValRec.LinkedValue = axisVal["linkedValue"]
                    else:
                        axisValRec.Format = 1
                elif "nominalValue" in axisVal:
                    axisValRec.Format = 2
                    axisValRec.NominalValue = axisVal["nominalValue"]
                    axisValRec.RangeMinValue = axisVal.get(
                        "rangeMinValue", AXIS_VALUE_NEGATIVE_INFINITY
                    )
                    axisValRec.RangeMaxValue = axisVal.get(
                        "rangeMaxValue", AXIS_VALUE_POSITIVE_INFINITY
                    )
                else:
                    raise ValueError("Can't determine format for AxisValue")

                axisValues.append(axisValRec)
        return axisRecords, axisValues

    def _buildAxisValuesFormat4(locations, axes, ttFont, windowsNames=True, macNames=True):
        axisTagToIndex = {}
        for axisRecordIndex, axisDict in enumerate(axes):
            axisTagToIndex[axisDict["tag"]] = axisRecordIndex

        axisValues = []
        for axisLocationDict in locations:
            axisValRec = ot.AxisValue()
            axisValRec.Format = 4
            axisValRec.ValueNameID = _addName(
                ttFont, axisLocationDict["name"], windows=windowsNames, mac=macNames
            )
            axisValRec.Flags = axisLocationDict.get("flags", 0)
            axisValueRecords = []
            for tag, value in axisLocationDict["location"].items():
                avr = ot.AxisValueRecord()
                avr.AxisIndex = axisTagToIndex[tag]
                avr.Value = value
                axisValueRecords.append(avr)
            axisValueRecords.sort(key=lambda avr: avr.AxisIndex)
            axisValRec.AxisCount = len(axisValueRecords)
            axisValRec.AxisValueRecord = axisValueRecords
            axisValues.append(axisValRec)
        return axisValues

    def _addName(
        ttFont: TTFont,
        value: Union[STATName, STATNameStatement],
        minNameID: int = 0,
        windows: bool = True,
        mac: bool = True,
    ) -> int:
        nameTable = ttFont["name"]
        if isinstance(value, int):
            # Already a nameID
            return value
        if isinstance(value, str):
            names = dict(en=value)
        elif isinstance(value, dict):
            names = value
        elif isinstance(value, list):
            nameID = nameTable._findUnusedNameID()
            for nameRecord in value:
                if isinstance(nameRecord, STATNameStatement):
                    nameTable.setName(
                        nameRecord.string,
                        nameID,
                        nameRecord.platformID,
                        nameRecord.platEncID,
                        nameRecord.langID,
                    )
                else:
                    raise TypeError("value must be a list of STATNameStatements")
            return nameID
        else:
            raise TypeError("value must be int, str, dict or list")
        return nameTable.addMultilingualName(
            names, ttFont=ttFont, windows=windows, mac=mac, minNameID=minNameID
        )

    def buildMathTable(
        ttFont,
        constants=None,
        italicsCorrections=None,
        topAccentAttachments=None,
        extendedShapes=None,
        mathKerns=None,
        minConnectorOverlap=0,
        vertGlyphVariants=None,
        horizGlyphVariants=None,
        vertGlyphAssembly=None,
        horizGlyphAssembly=None,
    ):
        """
        Add a 'MATH' table to 'ttFont'.

        'constants' is a dictionary of math constants. The keys are the constant
        names from the MATH table specification (with capital first letter), and the
        values are the constant values as numbers.

        'italicsCorrections' is a dictionary of italic corrections. The keys are the
        glyph names, and the values are the italic corrections as numbers.

        'topAccentAttachments' is a dictionary of top accent attachments. The keys
        are the glyph names, and the values are the top accent horizontal positions
        as numbers.

        'extendedShapes' is a set of extended shape glyphs.

        'mathKerns' is a dictionary of math kerns. The keys are the glyph names, and
        the values are dictionaries. The keys of these dictionaries are the side
        names ('TopRight', 'TopLeft', 'BottomRight', 'BottomLeft'), and the values
        are tuples of two lists. The first list contains the correction heights as
        numbers, and the second list contains the kern values as numbers.

        'minConnectorOverlap' is the minimum connector overlap as a number.

        'vertGlyphVariants' is a dictionary of vertical glyph variants. The keys are
        the glyph names, and the values are tuples of glyph name and full advance height.

        'horizGlyphVariants' is a dictionary of horizontal glyph variants. The keys
        are the glyph names, and the values are tuples of glyph name and full
        advance width.

        'vertGlyphAssembly' is a dictionary of vertical glyph assemblies. The keys
        are the glyph names, and the values are tuples of assembly parts and italics
        correction. The assembly parts are tuples of glyph name, flags, start
        connector length, end connector length, and full advance height.

        'horizGlyphAssembly' is a dictionary of horizontal glyph assemblies. The
        keys are the glyph names, and the values are tuples of assembly parts
        and italics correction. The assembly parts are tuples of glyph name, flags,
        start connector length, end connector length, and full advance width.

        Where a number is expected, an integer or a float can be used. The floats
        will be rounded.

        Example::

            constants = {
                "ScriptPercentScaleDown": 70,
                "ScriptScriptPercentScaleDown": 50,
                "DelimitedSubFormulaMinHeight": 24,
                "DisplayOperatorMinHeight": 60,
                ...
            }
            italicsCorrections = {
                "fitalic-math": 100,
                "fbolditalic-math": 120,
                ...
            }
            topAccentAttachments = {
                "circumflexcomb": 500,
                "acutecomb": 400,
                "A": 300,
                "B": 340,
                ...
            }
            extendedShapes = {"parenleft", "parenright", ...}
            mathKerns = {
                "A": {
                    "TopRight": ([-50, -100], [10, 20, 30]),
                    "TopLeft": ([50, 100], [10, 20, 30]),
                    ...
                },
                ...
            }
            vertGlyphVariants = {
                "parenleft": [("parenleft", 700), ("parenleft.size1", 1000), ...],
                "parenright": [("parenright", 700), ("parenright.size1", 1000), ...],
                ...
            }
            vertGlyphAssembly = {
                "braceleft": [
                    (
                        ("braceleft.bottom", 0, 0, 200, 500),
                        ("braceleft.extender", 1, 200, 200, 200)),
                        ("braceleft.middle", 0, 100, 100, 700),
                        ("braceleft.extender", 1, 200, 200, 200),
                        ("braceleft.top", 0, 200, 0, 500),
                    ),
                    100,
                ],
                ...
            }
        """
        glyphMap = ttFont.getReverseGlyphMap()

        ttFont["MATH"] = math = ttLib.newTable("MATH")
        math.table = table = ot.MATH()
        table.Version = 0x00010000
        table.populateDefaults()

        table.MathConstants = _buildMathConstants(constants)
        table.MathGlyphInfo = _buildMathGlyphInfo(
            glyphMap,
            italicsCorrections,
            topAccentAttachments,
            extendedShapes,
            mathKerns,
        )
        table.MathVariants = _buildMathVariants(
            glyphMap,
            minConnectorOverlap,
            vertGlyphVariants,
            horizGlyphVariants,
            vertGlyphAssembly,
            horizGlyphAssembly,
        )

    def _buildMathConstants(constants):
        if not constants:
            return None

        mathConstants = ot.MathConstants()
        for conv in mathConstants.getConverters():
            value = otRound(constants.get(conv.name, 0))
            if conv.tableClass:
                assert issubclass(conv.tableClass, ot.MathValueRecord)
                value = _mathValueRecord(value)
            setattr(mathConstants, conv.name, value)
        return mathConstants

    def _buildMathGlyphInfo(
        glyphMap,
        italicsCorrections,
        topAccentAttachments,
        extendedShapes,
        mathKerns,
    ):
        if not any([extendedShapes, italicsCorrections, topAccentAttachments, mathKerns]):
            return None

        info = ot.MathGlyphInfo()
        info.populateDefaults()

        if italicsCorrections:
            coverage = buildCoverage(italicsCorrections.keys(), glyphMap)
            info.MathItalicsCorrectionInfo = ot.MathItalicsCorrectionInfo()
            info.MathItalicsCorrectionInfo.Coverage = coverage
            info.MathItalicsCorrectionInfo.ItalicsCorrectionCount = len(coverage.glyphs)
            info.MathItalicsCorrectionInfo.ItalicsCorrection = [
                _mathValueRecord(italicsCorrections[n]) for n in coverage.glyphs
            ]

        if topAccentAttachments:
            coverage = buildCoverage(topAccentAttachments.keys(), glyphMap)
            info.MathTopAccentAttachment = ot.MathTopAccentAttachment()
            info.MathTopAccentAttachment.TopAccentCoverage = coverage
            info.MathTopAccentAttachment.TopAccentAttachmentCount = len(coverage.glyphs)
            info.MathTopAccentAttachment.TopAccentAttachment = [
                _mathValueRecord(topAccentAttachments[n]) for n in coverage.glyphs
            ]

        if extendedShapes:
            info.ExtendedShapeCoverage = buildCoverage(extendedShapes, glyphMap)

        if mathKerns:
            coverage = buildCoverage(mathKerns.keys(), glyphMap)
            info.MathKernInfo = ot.MathKernInfo()
            info.MathKernInfo.MathKernCoverage = coverage
            info.MathKernInfo.MathKernCount = len(coverage.glyphs)
            info.MathKernInfo.MathKernInfoRecords = []
            for glyph in coverage.glyphs:
                record = ot.MathKernInfoRecord()
                for side in {"TopRight", "TopLeft", "BottomRight", "BottomLeft"}:
                    if side in mathKerns[glyph]:
                        correctionHeights, kernValues = mathKerns[glyph][side]
                        assert len(correctionHeights) == len(kernValues) - 1
                        kern = ot.MathKern()
                        kern.HeightCount = len(correctionHeights)
                        kern.CorrectionHeight = [
                            _mathValueRecord(h) for h in correctionHeights
                        ]
                        kern.KernValue = [_mathValueRecord(v) for v in kernValues]
                        setattr(record, f"{side}MathKern", kern)
                info.MathKernInfo.MathKernInfoRecords.append(record)

        return info

    def _buildMathVariants(
        glyphMap,
        minConnectorOverlap,
        vertGlyphVariants,
        horizGlyphVariants,
        vertGlyphAssembly,
        horizGlyphAssembly,
    ):
        if not any(
            [vertGlyphVariants, horizGlyphVariants, vertGlyphAssembly, horizGlyphAssembly]
        ):
            return None

        variants = ot.MathVariants()
        variants.populateDefaults()

        variants.MinConnectorOverlap = minConnectorOverlap

        if vertGlyphVariants or vertGlyphAssembly:
            variants.VertGlyphCoverage, variants.VertGlyphConstruction = (
                _buildMathGlyphConstruction(
                    glyphMap,
                    vertGlyphVariants,
                    vertGlyphAssembly,
                )
            )

        if horizGlyphVariants or horizGlyphAssembly:
            variants.HorizGlyphCoverage, variants.HorizGlyphConstruction = (
                _buildMathGlyphConstruction(
                    glyphMap,
                    horizGlyphVariants,
                    horizGlyphAssembly,
                )
            )

        return variants

    def _buildMathGlyphConstruction(glyphMap, variants, assemblies):
        glyphs = set()
        if variants:
            glyphs.update(variants.keys())
        if assemblies:
            glyphs.update(assemblies.keys())
        coverage = buildCoverage(glyphs, glyphMap)
        constructions = []

        for glyphName in coverage.glyphs:
            construction = ot.MathGlyphConstruction()
            construction.populateDefaults()

            if variants and glyphName in variants:
                construction.VariantCount = len(variants[glyphName])
                construction.MathGlyphVariantRecord = []
                for variantName, advance in variants[glyphName]:
                    record = ot.MathGlyphVariantRecord()
                    record.VariantGlyph = variantName
                    record.AdvanceMeasurement = otRound(advance)
                    construction.MathGlyphVariantRecord.append(record)

            if assemblies and glyphName in assemblies:
                parts, ic = assemblies[glyphName]
                construction.GlyphAssembly = ot.GlyphAssembly()
                construction.GlyphAssembly.ItalicsCorrection = _mathValueRecord(ic)
                construction.GlyphAssembly.PartCount = len(parts)
                construction.GlyphAssembly.PartRecords = []
                for part in parts:
                    part_name, flags, start, end, advance = part
                    record = ot.GlyphPartRecord()
                    record.glyph = part_name
                    record.PartFlags = int(flags)
                    record.StartConnectorLength = otRound(start)
                    record.EndConnectorLength = otRound(end)
                    record.FullAdvance = otRound(advance)
                    construction.GlyphAssembly.PartRecords.append(record)

            constructions.append(construction)

        return coverage, constructions

    def _mathValueRecord(value):
        value_record = ot.MathValueRecord()
        value_record.Value = otRound(value)
        return value_record