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# Tutorial

Alembic provides for the creation, management, and invocation of change management scripts for a relational database, using SQLAlchemy as the underlying engine. This tutorial will provide a full introduction to the theory and usage of this tool.

To begin, make sure Alembic is installed; a common way to install within a local virtual environment is described at Installation. As illustrated in that chapter, it is useful to have Alembic installed in the same module / Python path as that of the target project, usually using a Python virtual environment, so that when the `alembic` command is run, the Python script which is invoked by `alembic`, namely your project’s `env.py` script, will have access to your application’s models. This is not strictly necessary, however is usually preferred.

The tutorial below assumes the `alembic` command line utility is present in the local path and when invoked, will have access to the same Python module environment as that of the target project.

## The Migration Environment

Usage of Alembic starts with creation of the Migration Environment. This is a directory of scripts that is specific to a particular application. The migration environment is created just once, and is then maintained along with the application’s source code itself. The environment is created using the `init` command of Alembic, and is then customizable to suit the specific needs of the application.

The structure of this environment, including some generated migration scripts, looks like:

    yourproject/
        alembic.ini
        pyproject.toml
        alembic/
            env.py
            README
            script.py.mako
            versions/
                3512b954651e_add_account.py
                2b1ae634e5cd_add_order_id.py
                3adcc9a56557_rename_username_field.py

The directory includes these directories/files:

- `alembic.ini` - this is Alembic’s main configuration file which is generated by all templates. A detailed walkthrough of this file is later in the section Editing the .ini File.

- `pyproject.toml` - most modern Python projects have a `pyproject.toml` file. Alembic may optionally store project related configuration in this file as well; to use a `pyproject.toml` configuration, see the section Using pyproject.toml for configuration.

- `yourproject` - this is the root of your application’s source code, or some directory within it.

- `alembic` - this directory lives within your application’s source tree and is the home of the migration environment. It can be named anything, and a project that uses multiple databases may even have more than one.

- `env.py` - This is a Python script that is run whenever the alembic migration tool is invoked. At the very least, it contains instructions to configure and generate a SQLAlchemy engine, procure a connection from that engine along with a transaction, and then invoke the migration engine, using the connection as a source of database connectivity.

  The `env.py` script is part of the generated environment so that the way migrations run is entirely customizable. The exact specifics of how to connect are here, as well as the specifics of how the migration environment are invoked. The script can be modified so that multiple engines can be operated upon, custom arguments can be passed into the migration environment, application-specific libraries and models can be loaded in and made available.

  Alembic includes a set of initialization templates which feature different varieties of `env.py` for different use cases.

- `README` - included with the various environment templates, should have something informative.

- `script.py.mako` - This is a Mako template file which is used to generate new migration scripts. Whatever is here is used to generate new files within `versions/`. This is scriptable so that the structure of each migration file can be controlled, including standard imports to be within each, as well as changes to the structure of the `upgrade()` and `downgrade()` functions. For example, the `multidb` environment allows for multiple functions to be generated using a naming scheme `upgrade_engine1()`, `upgrade_engine2()`.

- `versions/` - This directory holds the individual version scripts. Users of other migration tools may notice that the files here don’t use ascending integers, and instead use a partial GUID approach. In Alembic, the ordering of version scripts is relative to directives within the scripts themselves, and it is theoretically possible to “splice” version files in between others, allowing migration sequences from different branches to be merged, albeit carefully by hand.

## Creating an Environment

With a basic understanding of what the environment is, we can create one using `alembic init`. This will create an environment using the “generic” template:

    $ cd /path/to/yourproject
    $ source /path/to/yourproject/.venv/bin/activate   # assuming a local virtualenv
    $ alembic init alembic

Where above, the `init` command was called to generate a migrations directory called `alembic`:

    Creating directory /path/to/yourproject/alembic...done
    Creating directory /path/to/yourproject/alembic/versions...done
    Generating /path/to/yourproject/alembic.ini...done
    Generating /path/to/yourproject/alembic/env.py...done
    Generating /path/to/yourproject/alembic/README...done
    Generating /path/to/yourproject/alembic/script.py.mako...done
    Please edit configuration/connection/logging settings in
    '/path/to/yourproject/alembic.ini' before proceeding.

The above layout is produced using a layout template called `generic`. Alembic also includes other environment templates. These can be listed out using the `list_templates` command:

    $ alembic list_templates
    Available templates:

    generic - Generic single-database configuration.
    pyproject - pep-621 compliant configuration that includes pyproject.toml
    async - Generic single-database configuration with an async dbapi.
    multidb - Rudimentary multi-database configuration.

    Templates are used via the 'init' command, e.g.:

      alembic init --template generic ./scripts

Changed in version 1.16.0: A new `pyproject` template has been added. See the section Using pyproject.toml for configuration for background.

## Editing the .ini File

Alembic placed a file `alembic.ini` into the current directory. Alembic looks in the current directory for this file when any other commands are run; to indicate an alternative location, the `--config` option may be used, or the `ALEMBIC_CONFIG` environment variable may be set.

Tip

The file generated with the `generic` configuration template contains all directives for both source code configuration as well as database configuration. When using the `pyproject` template, the source code configuration elements will instead be in a separate `pyproject.toml` file, described in the section Using pyproject.toml for configuration.

The all-in-one .ini file created by `generic` is illustrated below:

    # A generic, single database configuration.

    [alembic]
    # path to migration scripts.
    # this is typically a path given in POSIX (e.g. forward slashes)
    # format, relative to the token %(here)s which refers to the location of this
    # ini file
    script_location = %(here)s/alembic

    # template used to generate migration file names; The default value is %%(rev)s_%%(slug)s
    # Uncomment the line below if you want the files to be prepended with date and time
    # file_template = %%(year)d_%%(month).2d_%%(day).2d_%%(hour).2d%%(minute).2d-%%(rev)s_%%(slug)s
    # Or organize into date-based subdirectories (requires recursive_version_locations = true)
    # file_template = %%(year)d/%%(month).2d/%%(day).2d_%%(hour).2d%%(minute).2d_%%(second).2d_%%(rev)s_%%(slug)s

    # sys.path path, will be prepended to sys.path if present.
    # defaults to the current working directory.
    prepend_sys_path = .

    # timezone to use when rendering the date within the migration file
    # as well as the filename.
    # If specified, requires the python>=3.9 or backports.zoneinfo library and tzdata library.
    # Any required deps can installed by adding `alembic[tz]` to the pip requirements
    # string value is passed to ZoneInfo()
    # leave blank for localtime
    # timezone =

    # max length of characters to apply to the
    # "slug" field
    # truncate_slug_length = 40

    # set to 'true' to run the environment during
    # the 'revision' command, regardless of autogenerate
    # revision_environment = false

    # set to 'true' to allow .pyc and .pyo files without
    # a source .py file to be detected as revisions in the
    # versions/ directory
    # sourceless = false

    # version location specification; This defaults
    # to <script_location>/versions.  When using multiple version
    # directories, initial revisions must be specified with --version-path.
    # the special token `%(here)s` is available which indicates the absolute path
    # to this configuration file.
    #
    # The path separator used here should be the separator specified by "version_path_separator" below.
    # version_locations = %(here)s/bar:%(here)s/bat:%(here)s/alembic/versions

    # path_separator (New in Alembic 1.16.0, supersedes version_path_separator);
    # This indicates what character is used to
    # split lists of file paths, including version_locations and prepend_sys_path
    # within configparser files such as alembic.ini.
    #
    # The default rendered in new alembic.ini files is "os", which uses os.pathsep
    # to provide os-dependent path splitting.
    #
    # Note that in order to support legacy alembic.ini files, this default does NOT
    # take place if path_separator is not present in alembic.ini.  If this
    # option is omitted entirely, fallback logic is as follows:
    #
    # 1. Parsing of the version_locations option falls back to using the legacy
    #    "version_path_separator" key, which if absent then falls back to the legacy
    #    behavior of splitting on spaces and/or commas.
    # 2. Parsing of the prepend_sys_path option falls back to the legacy
    #    behavior of splitting on spaces, commas, or colons.
    #
    # Valid values for path_separator are:
    #
    # path_separator = :
    # path_separator = ;
    # path_separator = space
    # path_separator = newline
    #
    # Use os.pathsep. Default configuration used for new projects.
    path_separator = os

    # set to 'true' to search source files recursively
    # in each "version_locations" directory
    # new in Alembic version 1.10
    # recursive_version_locations = false

    # the output encoding used when revision files
    # are written from script.py.mako
    # output_encoding = utf-8

    # database URL.  This is consumed by the user-maintained env.py script only.
    # other means of configuring database URLs may be customized within the env.py
    # file.
    # See notes in "escaping characters in ini files" for guidelines on
    # passwords
    sqlalchemy.url = driver://user:pass@localhost/dbname

    # [post_write_hooks]
    # This section defines scripts or Python functions that are run
    # on newly generated revision scripts.  See the documentation for further
    # detail and examples

    # format using "black" - use the console_scripts runner,
    # against the "black" entrypoint
    # hooks = black
    # black.type = console_scripts
    # black.entrypoint = black
    # black.options = -l 79 REVISION_SCRIPT_FILENAME

    # lint with attempts to fix using "ruff" - use the module runner, against the "ruff" module
    # hooks = ruff
    # ruff.type = module
    # ruff.module = ruff
    # ruff.options = check --fix REVISION_SCRIPT_FILENAME

    # Alternatively, use the exec runner to execute a binary found on your PATH
    # hooks = ruff
    # ruff.type = exec
    # ruff.executable = ruff
    # ruff.options = check --fix REVISION_SCRIPT_FILENAME

    # Logging configuration.  This is also consumed by the user-maintained
    # env.py script only.
    [loggers]
    keys = root,sqlalchemy,alembic

    [handlers]
    keys = console

    [formatters]
    keys = generic

    [logger_root]
    level = WARNING
    handlers = console
    qualname =

    [logger_sqlalchemy]
    level = WARNING
    handlers =
    qualname = sqlalchemy.engine

    [logger_alembic]
    level = INFO
    handlers =
    qualname = alembic

    [handler_console]
    class = StreamHandler
    args = (sys.stderr,)
    level = NOTSET
    formatter = generic

    [formatter_generic]
    format = %(levelname)-5.5s [%(name)s] %(message)s
    datefmt = %H:%M:%S

The `alembic.ini` file is consumed by Alembic using Python’s configparser.ConfigParser library. The `%(here)s` variable is provided as a substitution which is populated with the absolute path to the `alembic.ini` file itself. This can be used to produce correct pathnames to directories and files relative to where the config file is located.

Tip

Percent signs in `alembic.ini` configuration variables that are not part of an interpolation token like `%(here)s`, including percent signs that are part of the SQLAlchemy database URL for its own URL-escaping requirements, must themselves be escaped. See the section Escaping Characters in ini files for more information.

This file contains the following features:

- `[alembic]` - this is the section read by Alembic to determine configuration. Alembic’s core implementation does not directly read any other areas of the file, not including additional directives that may be consumed from the end-user-customizable `env.py` file (see note below). The name “alembic” (for configparser config only, not `pyproject.toml`) can be customized using the `--name` commandline flag; see Run Multiple Alembic Environments from one .ini file for a basic example of this.

  Note

  The default `env.py` file included with Alembic’s environment templates will also read from the logging sections `[logging]`, `[handlers]` etc. If the configuration file in use does not contain logging directives, please remove the `fileConfig()` directive within the generated `env.py` file to prevent it from attempting to configure logging.

- `script_location` - this is the location of the Alembic environment. It is normally specified as a filesystem location relative to the `%(here)s` token, which indicates where the config file itself is located. The location may also be a plain relative path, where it’s interpreted as relative to the current directory, or an absolute path.

  This is the only key required by Alembic in all cases. The generation of the .ini file by the command `alembic init alembic` automatically placed the directory name `alembic` here. The special variable `%(here)s` can also be used, as in `%(here)s/alembic`.

  For support of applications that package themselves into .egg files, the value can also be specified as a package resource, in which case `resource_filename()` is used to find the file (new in 0.2.2). Any non-absolute URI which contains colons is interpreted here as a resource name, rather than a straight filename.

- `file_template` - this is the naming scheme used to generate new migration files. Uncomment the presented value if you would like the migration files to be prepended with date and time, so that they are listed in chronological order. The default value is `%%(rev)s_%%(slug)s`. Tokens available include:

  > - `%%(rev)s` - revision id

  > - `%%(slug)s` - a truncated string derived from the revision message

  > - `%%(epoch)s` - epoch timestamp based on the create date; this makes use of the Python `datetime.timestamp()` method to produce an epoch value.

  > - `%%(year)d`, `%%(month).2d`, `%%(day).2d`, `%%(hour).2d`, `%%(minute).2d`, `%%(second).2d` - components of the create date, by default `datetime.datetime.now()` unless the `timezone` configuration option is also used.

  The `file_template` may also include directory separators to organize migration files into subdirectories. When using directory paths in `file_template`, `recursive_version_locations` must be set to `true`. For example:

      file_template = %%(year)d/%%(month).2d/%%(day).2d_%%(hour).2d%%(minute).2d_%%(second).2d_%%(rev)s_%%(slug)s
      recursive_version_locations = true

  This would create migration files organized by date in a structure like `versions/2024/12/26_143022_abc123_add_user_table.py`.

  Added in version 1.18.0: Support for directory paths in `file_template`

- `timezone` - an optional timezone name (e.g. `UTC`, `EST5EDT`, etc.) that will be applied to the timestamp which renders inside the migration file’s comment as well as within the filename. This option requires Python>=3.9 or installing the `backports.zoneinfo` library and the `tzdata` library. If `timezone` is specified, the create date object is no longer derived from `datetime.datetime.now()` and is instead generated as:

      datetime.datetime.utcnow().replace(
        tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc
      ).astimezone(ZoneInfo(<timezone>))

  Changed in version 1.13.0: Python standard library `zoneinfo` is now used for timezone rendering in migrations; previously `python-dateutil` was used.

- `truncate_slug_length` - defaults to 40, the max number of characters to include in the “slug” field.

- `sqlalchemy.url` - A URL to connect to the database via SQLAlchemy. This configuration value is only used if the `env.py` file calls upon them; in the “generic” template, the call to `config.get_main_option("sqlalchemy.url")` in the `run_migrations_offline()` function and the call to `engine_from_config(prefix="sqlalchemy.")` in the `run_migrations_online()` function are where this key is referenced. If the SQLAlchemy URL should come from some other source, such as from environment variables or a global registry, or if the migration environment makes use of multiple database URLs, the developer is encouraged to alter the `env.py` file to use whatever methods are appropriate in order to acquire the database URL or URLs.

- `revision_environment` - this is a flag which when set to the value ‘true’, will indicate that the migration environment script `env.py` should be run unconditionally when generating new revision files, as well as when running the `alembic history` command.

- `sourceless` - when set to ‘true’, revision files that only exist as .pyc or .pyo files in the versions directory will be used as versions, allowing “sourceless” versioning folders. When left at the default of ‘false’, only .py files are consumed as version files.

- `version_locations` - an optional list of revision file locations, to allow revisions to exist in multiple directories simultaneously. See Working with Multiple Bases for examples.

- `path_separator` - a separator character for the `version_locations` and `prepend_sys_path` path lists. Only applies to configparser config, not needed if `pyproject.toml` configuration is used. See Working with Multiple Bases for examples.

- `recursive_version_locations` - when set to ‘true’, revision files are searched recursively in each “version_locations” directory.

  Added in version 1.10.

- `output_encoding` - the encoding to use when Alembic writes the `script.py.mako` file into a new migration file. Defaults to `'utf-8'`.

- `[loggers]`, `[handlers]`, `[formatters]`, `[logger_*]`, `[handler_*]`, `[formatter_*]` - these sections are all part of Python’s standard logging configuration, the mechanics of which are documented at Configuration File Format. As is the case with the database connection, these directives are used directly as the result of the `logging.config.fileConfig()` call present in the `env.py` script, which you’re free to modify.

For starting up with just a single database and the generic configuration, setting up the SQLAlchemy URL is all that’s needed:

    sqlalchemy.url = postgresql://scott:tiger@localhost/test

### Escaping Characters in ini files

As mentioned previously, Alembic’s .ini file format uses Python ConfigParser to parse the file. `ConfigParser` ‘s interpolation feature is enabled in this operation to support the use of the `%(here)s` token, as well as any other tokens that are user-configurable via the `Config.config_args` parameter when creating a custom `Config` object.

This means that any literal string that includes a percent sign that is not part of an interpolated variable must be escaped by doubling it. That is, for a configuration value like this in a Python script:

    my_configuration_value = "some % string"

To be parsed from the .ini file would need to be placed as:

    [alembic]

    my_configuration_value = some %% string

This escaping can be seen in the sample `alembic.ini` file, illustrated in such values as `file_template`:

    # template used to generate migration file names; The default value is %%(rev)s_%%(slug)s
    file_template = %%(year)d_%%(month).2d_%%(day).2d_%%(hour).2d%%(minute).2d-%%(rev)s_%%(slug)s

Where above, the actual `file_template` that is sent to Alembic’s file generation system would be `%(year)d_%(month).2d_%(day).2d_%(hour).2d%(minute).2d-%(rev)s_%(slug)s`.

Tip

Alembic also employs percent-sign interpolation of values when retrieving values from a `pyproject.toml` file, as documented at Using pyproject.toml for configuration. So the same percent-doubling steps must be applied in Alembic-parsed values, for fields such as `file_template`.

For the SQLAlchemy URL, percent signs are used to escape syntactically- significant characters such as the `@` sign as well as the percent sign itself. For a password such as `"P@ssw%rd"`:

    >>> my_actual_password = "P@ssw%rd"

As documented by SQLAlchemy, the `@` sign as well as the percent sign when placed into a URL should be escaped with `urllib.parse.quote_plus`:

    >>> import urllib.parse
    >>> sqlalchemy_quoted_password = urllib.parse.quote_plus(my_actual_password)
    >>> sqlalchemy_quoted_password
    'P%40ssw%25rd'

This URL quoting can also be seen in SQLAlchemy’s own stringification of URLs:

    >>> from sqlalchemy import URL
    >>> URL.create(
    ...   "some_db", username="scott", password=my_actual_password, host="host"
    ... ).render_as_string(hide_password=False)
    'some_db://scott:P%40ssw%25rd@host'

For the above escaped password string `'P%40ssw%rd'` to be placed into a `ConfigParser` file that includes interpolation of percent signs, `%` characters are doubled:

    >>> sqlalchemy_quoted_password.replace("%", "%%")
    'P%%40ssw%%25rd'

Here’s a complete program that will compose a URL and show the correct configparser form for a given set of database connection details, as well as illustrate how to assert these forms for correctness:

    from sqlalchemy import URL, make_url

    database_driver = input("database driver? ")
    username = input("username? ")
    password = input("password? ")
    host = input("host? ")
    port = input("port? ")
    database = input("database? ")

    sqlalchemy_url = URL.create(
        drivername=database_driver,
        username=username,
        password=password,
        host=host,
        port=int(port),
        database=database,
    )

    stringified_sqlalchemy_url = sqlalchemy_url.render_as_string(
        hide_password=False
    )

    # assert make_url round trip
    assert make_url(stringified_sqlalchemy_url) == sqlalchemy_url

    print(
        f"The correctly escaped string that can be passed "
        f"to SQLAlchemy make_url() and create_engine() is:"
        f"\n\n     {stringified_sqlalchemy_url!r}\n"
    )

    percent_replaced_url = stringified_sqlalchemy_url.replace("%", "%%")

    # assert percent-interpolated plus make_url round trip
    assert make_url(percent_replaced_url % {}) == sqlalchemy_url

    print(
        f"The SQLAlchemy URL that can be placed in a ConfigParser "
        f"file such as alembic.ini is:\n\n      "
        f"sqlalchemy.url = {percent_replaced_url}\n"
    )

The above program should eliminate any ambiguity when placing a SQLAlchemy URL into a configparser file:

    $ python alembic_pw_script.py
    database driver? postgresql+psycopg2
    username? scott
    password? P@ssw%rd
    host? localhost
    port? 5432
    database? testdb
    The correctly escaped string that can be passed to SQLAlchemy make_url() and create_engine() is:

        'postgresql+psycopg2://scott:P%40ssw%25rd@localhost:5432/testdb'

    The SQLAlchemy URL that can be placed in a ConfigParser file such as alembic.ini is:

          sqlalchemy.url = postgresql+psycopg2://scott:P%%40ssw%%25rd@localhost:5432/testdb

## Using pyproject.toml for configuration

Added in version 1.16.0.

As the `alembic.ini` file includes a subset of options that are specific to the organization and production of Python code within the local environment, these specific options may alternatively be placed in the application’s `pyproject.toml` file, to allow for PEP 621 compliant configuration.

Use of `pyproject.toml` does not preclude having an `alembic.ini` file as well, as `alembic.ini` is still the default location for deployment details such as database URLs, connectivity options, and logging to be present. However, as connectivity and logging is consumed only by user-managed code within the `env.py` file, it is feasible to have an environment that does not require the `alembic.ini` file itself to be present at all, if these configurational elements are consumed from other places elsewhere in the application. Alembic will still run successfully if only a `pyproject.toml` file is present and no `alembic.ini` is found.

To start with a pyproject configuration, the most straightforward approach is to use the `pyproject` template:

    alembic init --template pyproject alembic

The output states that the existing pyproject file is being augmented with additional directives:

    Creating directory /path/to/yourproject/alembic...done
    Creating directory /path/to/yourproject/alembic/versions...done
    Appending to /path/to/yourproject/pyproject.toml...done
    Generating /path/to/yourproject/alembic.ini...done
    Generating /path/to/yourproject/alembic/env.py...done
    Generating /path/to/yourproject/alembic/README...done
    Generating /path/to/yourproject/alembic/script.py.mako...done
    Please edit configuration/connection/logging settings in
    '/path/to/yourproject/pyproject.toml' and
    '/path/to/yourproject/alembic.ini' before proceeding.

Alembic’s template runner will generate a new `pyproject.toml` file if one does not exist, or it will append directives to an existing `pyproject.toml` file that does not already include alembic directives.

Within the `pyproject.toml` file, the default section generated looks mostly like the `alembic.ini` file, with the welcome exception that lists of values are supported directly; this means the values `prepend_sys_path` and `version_locations` are specified as lists. The `%(here)s` token also remains available as the absolute path to the `pyproject.toml` file:

    [tool.alembic]
    # path to migration scripts
    script_location = "%(here)s/alembic"

    # template used to generate migration file names; The default value is %%(rev)s_%%(slug)s
    # Uncomment the line below if you want the files to be prepended with date and time
    # file_template = %%(year)d_%%(month).2d_%%(day).2d_%%(hour).2d%%(minute).2d-%%(rev)s_%%(slug)s
    # Or organize into date-based subdirectories (requires recursive_version_locations = true)
    # file_template = %%(year)d/%%(month).2d/%%(day).2d_%%(hour).2d%%(minute).2d_%%(second).2d_%%(rev)s_%%(slug)s

    # additional paths to be prepended to sys.path. defaults to the current working directory.
    prepend_sys_path = [
        "."
    ]

    # timezone to use when rendering the date within the migration file
    # as well as the filename.
    # If specified, requires the python>=3.9 or backports.zoneinfo library and tzdata library.
    # Any required deps can installed by adding `alembic[tz]` to the pip requirements
    # string value is passed to ZoneInfo()
    # leave blank for localtime
    # timezone =

    # max length of characters to apply to the
    # "slug" field
    # truncate_slug_length = 40

    # set to 'true' to run the environment during
    # the 'revision' command, regardless of autogenerate
    # revision_environment = false

    # set to 'true' to allow .pyc and .pyo files without
    # a source .py file to be detected as revisions in the
    # versions/ directory
    # sourceless = false

    # version location specification; This defaults
    # to <script_location>/versions.  When using multiple version
    # directories, initial revisions must be specified with --version-path.
    # version_locations = [
    #    "%(here)s/alembic/versions",
    #    "%(here)s/foo/bar"
    # ]

    # set to 'true' to search source files recursively
    # in each "version_locations" directory
    # new in Alembic version 1.10
    # recursive_version_locations = false

    # the output encoding used when revision files
    # are written from script.py.mako
    # output_encoding = "utf-8"

    # This section defines scripts or Python functions that are run
    # on newly generated revision scripts.  See the documentation for further
    # detail and examples
    # [[tool.alembic.post_write_hooks]]
    # format using "black" - use the console_scripts runner,
    # against the "black" entrypoint
    # name = "black"
    # type = "console_scripts"
    # entrypoint = "black"
    # options = "-l 79 REVISION_SCRIPT_FILENAME"
    #
    # [[tool.alembic.post_write_hooks]]
    # lint with attempts to fix using "ruff" - use the exec runner,
    # execute a binary
    # name = "ruff"
    # type = "exec"
    # executable = "%(here)s/.venv/bin/ruff"
    # options = "check --fix REVISION_SCRIPT_FILENAME"

Tip

As Alembic adds support for interpolation tokens like `%(here)s` to its handling of `pyproject.toml` values, the same percent-sign escaping steps that apply to `alembic.ini` configuration variables also apply to `pyproject.toml`, even though database URLs are not configured in this file. This escaping can be seen in the sample `file_template` value above. See the section Escaping Characters in ini files for background.

The `alembic.ini` file for this template is truncated and contains only database configuration and logging configuration:

    [alembic]

    # database URL.  This is consumed by the user-maintained env.py script only.
    # other means of configuring database URLs may be customized within the env.py
    # file.
    sqlalchemy.url = driver://user:pass@localhost/dbname

    # Logging configuration.  This is also consumed by the user-maintained
    # env.py script only.
    [loggers]
    keys = root,sqlalchemy,alembic

    [handlers]
    keys = console

    [formatters]
    keys = generic

    [logger_root]
    level = WARNING
    handlers = console
    qualname =

    [logger_sqlalchemy]
    level = WARNING
    handlers =
    qualname = sqlalchemy.engine

    [logger_alembic]
    level = INFO
    handlers =
    qualname = alembic

    [handler_console]
    class = StreamHandler
    args = (sys.stderr,)
    level = NOTSET
    formatter = generic

    [formatter_generic]
    format = %(levelname)-5.5s [%(name)s] %(message)s
    datefmt = %H:%M:%S

When `env.py` is configured to obtain database connectivity and logging configuration from places other than `alembic.ini`, the file can be omitted altogether.

## Create a Migration Script

With the environment in place we can create a new revision, using `alembic revision`:

    $ alembic revision -m "create account table"
    Generating /path/to/yourproject/alembic/versions/1975ea83b712_create_accoun
    t_table.py...done

A new file `1975ea83b712_create_account_table.py` is generated. Looking inside the file:

    """create account table

    Revision ID: 1975ea83b712
    Revises:
    Create Date: 2011-11-08 11:40:27.089406

    """

    # revision identifiers, used by Alembic.
    revision = '1975ea83b712'
    down_revision = None
    branch_labels = None

    from alembic import op
    import sqlalchemy as sa

    def upgrade():
        pass

    def downgrade():
        pass

The file contains some header information, identifiers for the current revision and a “downgrade” revision, an import of basic Alembic directives, and empty `upgrade()` and `downgrade()` functions. Our job here is to populate the `upgrade()` and `downgrade()` functions with directives that will apply a set of changes to our database. Typically, `upgrade()` is required while `downgrade()` is only needed if down-revision capability is desired, though it’s probably a good idea.

Another thing to notice is the `down_revision` variable. This is how Alembic knows the correct order in which to apply migrations. When we create the next revision, the new file’s `down_revision` identifier would point to this one:

    # revision identifiers, used by Alembic.
    revision = 'ae1027a6acf'
    down_revision = '1975ea83b712'

Every time Alembic runs an operation against the `versions/` directory, it reads all the files in, and composes a list based on how the `down_revision` identifiers link together, with the `down_revision` of `None` representing the first file. In theory, if a migration environment had thousands of migrations, this could begin to add some latency to startup, but in practice a project should probably prune old migrations anyway (see the section Building an Up to Date Database from Scratch for a description on how to do this, while maintaining the ability to build the current database fully).

We can then add some directives to our script, suppose adding a new table `account`:

    def upgrade():
        op.create_table(
            'account',
            sa.Column('id', sa.Integer, primary_key=True),
            sa.Column('name', sa.String(50), nullable=False),
            sa.Column('description', sa.Unicode(200)),
        )

    def downgrade():
        op.drop_table('account')

`create_table()` and `drop_table()` are Alembic directives. Alembic provides all the basic database migration operations via these directives, which are designed to be as simple and minimalistic as possible; there’s no reliance upon existing table metadata for most of these directives. They draw upon a global “context” that indicates how to get at a database connection (if any; migrations can dump SQL/DDL directives to files as well) in order to invoke the command. This global context is set up, like everything else, in the `env.py` script.

An overview of all Alembic directives is at Operation Reference.

## Running our First Migration

We now want to run our migration. Assuming our database is totally clean, it’s as yet unversioned. The `alembic upgrade` command will run upgrade operations, proceeding from the current database revision, in this example `None`, to the given target revision. We can specify `1975ea83b712` as the revision we’d like to upgrade to, but it’s easier in most cases just to tell it “the most recent”, in this case `head`:

    $ alembic upgrade head
    INFO  [alembic.context] Context class PostgresqlContext.
    INFO  [alembic.context] Will assume transactional DDL.
    INFO  [alembic.context] Running upgrade None -> 1975ea83b712

Wow that rocked! Note that the information we see on the screen is the result of the logging configuration set up in `alembic.ini` - logging the `alembic` stream to the console (standard error, specifically).

The process which occurred here included that Alembic first checked if the database had a table called `alembic_version`, and if not, created it. It looks in this table for the current version, if any, and then calculates the path from this version to the version requested, in this case `head`, which is known to be `1975ea83b712`. It then invokes the `upgrade()` method in each file to get to the target revision.

## Running our Second Migration

Let’s do another one so we have some things to play with. We again create a revision file:

    $ alembic revision -m "Add a column"
    Generating /path/to/yourapp/alembic/versions/ae1027a6acf_add_a_column.py...
    done

Let’s edit this file and add a new column to the `account` table:

    """Add a column

    Revision ID: ae1027a6acf
    Revises: 1975ea83b712
    Create Date: 2011-11-08 12:37:36.714947

    """

    # revision identifiers, used by Alembic.
    revision = 'ae1027a6acf'
    down_revision = '1975ea83b712'

    from alembic import op
    import sqlalchemy as sa

    def upgrade():
        op.add_column('account', sa.Column('last_transaction_date', sa.DateTime))

    def downgrade():
        op.drop_column('account', 'last_transaction_date')

Running again to `head`:

    $ alembic upgrade head
    INFO  [alembic.context] Context class PostgresqlContext.
    INFO  [alembic.context] Will assume transactional DDL.
    INFO  [alembic.context] Running upgrade 1975ea83b712 -> ae1027a6acf

We’ve now added the `last_transaction_date` column to the database.

## Partial Revision Identifiers

Any time we need to refer to a revision number explicitly, we have the option to use a partial number. As long as this number uniquely identifies the version, it may be used in any command in any place that version numbers are accepted:

    $ alembic upgrade ae1

Above, we use `ae1` to refer to revision `ae1027a6acf`. Alembic will stop and let you know if more than one version starts with that prefix.

## Relative Migration Identifiers

Relative upgrades/downgrades are also supported. To move two versions from the current, a decimal value “+N” can be supplied:

    $ alembic upgrade +2

Negative values are accepted for downgrades:

    $ alembic downgrade -1

Relative identifiers may also be in terms of a specific revision. For example, to upgrade to revision `ae1027a6acf` plus two additional steps:

    $ alembic upgrade ae10+2

## Getting Information

With a few revisions present we can get some information about the state of things.

First we can view the current revision:

    $ alembic current
    INFO  [alembic.context] Context class PostgresqlContext.
    INFO  [alembic.context] Will assume transactional DDL.
    Current revision for postgresql://scott:XXXXX@localhost/test: 1975ea83b712 -> ae1027a6acf (head), Add a column

`head` is displayed only if the revision identifier for this database matches the head revision.

We can also view history with `alembic history`; the `--verbose` option (accepted by several commands, including `history`, `current`, `heads` and `branches`) will show us full information about each revision:

    $ alembic history --verbose

    Rev: ae1027a6acf (head)
    Parent: 1975ea83b712
    Path: /path/to/yourproject/alembic/versions/ae1027a6acf_add_a_column.py

        add a column

        Revision ID: ae1027a6acf
        Revises: 1975ea83b712
        Create Date: 2014-11-20 13:02:54.849677

    Rev: 1975ea83b712
    Parent: <base>
    Path: /path/to/yourproject/alembic/versions/1975ea83b712_add_account_table.py

        create account table

        Revision ID: 1975ea83b712
        Revises:
        Create Date: 2014-11-20 13:02:46.257104

### Viewing History Ranges

Using the `-r` option to `alembic history`, we can also view various slices of history. The `-r` argument accepts an argument `[start]:[end]`, where either may be a revision number, symbols like `head`, `heads` or `base`, `current` to specify the current revision(s), as well as negative relative ranges for `[start]` and positive relative ranges for `[end]`:

    $ alembic history -r1975ea:ae1027

A relative range starting from three revs ago up to current migration, which will invoke the migration environment against the database to get the current migration:

    $ alembic history -r-3:current

Note

As illustrated above, to use ranges that start with a negative number (i.e. a dash), due to a bug in argparse , either the syntax `-r-<base>:<head>`, without any space, must be used as above:

    $ alembic history -r-3:current

or if using `--rev-range`, an equals sign must be used:

    $ alembic history --rev-range=-3:current

Using quotes or escape symbols will not work if there’s a space after the argument name.

View all revisions from 1975 to the head:

    $ alembic history -r1975ea:

## Downgrading

We can illustrate a downgrade back to nothing, by calling `alembic downgrade` back to the beginning, which in Alembic is called `base`:

    $ alembic downgrade base
    INFO  [alembic.context] Context class PostgresqlContext.
    INFO  [alembic.context] Will assume transactional DDL.
    INFO  [alembic.context] Running downgrade ae1027a6acf -> 1975ea83b712
    INFO  [alembic.context] Running downgrade 1975ea83b712 -> None

Back to nothing - and up again:

    $ alembic upgrade head
    INFO  [alembic.context] Context class PostgresqlContext.
    INFO  [alembic.context] Will assume transactional DDL.
    INFO  [alembic.context] Running upgrade None -> 1975ea83b712
    INFO  [alembic.context] Running upgrade 1975ea83b712 -> ae1027a6acf

## Next Steps

The vast majority of Alembic environments make heavy use of the “autogenerate” feature. Continue onto the next section, Auto Generating Migrations.